Question 1

Cognition: History and Methods

Accepted Answer

Cognitive psychology assumes the mind is an information-processing system.

Question 2

Retrieval Practice

Accepted Answer

Testing memory for previously learned information.

Question 3

Elaboration

Accepted Answer

Connecting or expanding on information to be learned; elaboration improves memory more than rote memorization.

Question 4

Spaced Practice

Accepted Answer

Distributing study sessions over time; improves long-term retention compared with cramming.

Question 5

Growth Mindset

Accepted Answer

The belief that intellectual abilities can be learned and developed.

Question 6

Fixed Mindset

Accepted Answer

The belief that intellectual abilities are set and cannot substantially change.

Question 7

Introspection

Accepted Answer

Reflecting on one's own thoughts and feelings.

Question 8

Limitations of Introspection

Accepted Answer

Mental processes and representations cannot be directly observed or measured through introspection.

Question 9

Behaviorism

Accepted Answer

The approach that focuses on measurable and recordable events and behavior rather than unobservable mental processes.

Question 10

Limitations of Behaviorism

Accepted Answer

Behaviorism cannot adequately explain internal mental processes and representations.

Question 11

4 Observations That Contributed to the Cognitive Revolution

Accepted Answer

1. Debate on language acquisition; 2. Mental maps in rats (Tolman's study); 3. Gestalt principles of perception; 4. Role of schemas in memory.

Question 12

Cognitive Revolution

Accepted Answer

The shift toward studying internal mental processes using indirect measures because mental processes cannot be directly observed.

Question 13

Cognitive Psychologists' Approach to Mental Processes

Accepted Answer

Use indirect measures to study invisible mental processes and representations that have visible consequences.

Question 14

Indirect Measures of Mental Representation

Accepted Answer

Accuracy

Question 15

Accuracy

Accepted Answer

An indirect measure of mental processes based on whether a person responds correctly.

Question 16

Response Time

Accepted Answer

An indirect measure of mental processes based on how quickly a person responds.

Question 17

Neuroimaging

Accepted Answer

An indirect measure of mental processes that uses brain imaging to examine brain structure or activity.

Question 18

Case Study

Accepted Answer

An intensive analysis of a single individual or a small group.

Question 19

Limitations of Case Studies

Accepted Answer

Lack of experimental control and usually no control group.

Question 20

Correlational Study

Accepted Answer

A study that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related.

Question 21

Limitation of Correlational Studies

Accepted Answer

Correlational studies cannot establish causality.

Question 22

Directionality Problem

Accepted Answer

The problem of determining which variable came first or caused the other.

Question 23

Third Variable Problem

Accepted Answer

The possibility that another variable explains the relationship between two variables.

Question 24

Experiment

Accepted Answer

A study that manipulates at least one variable to examine its effect on another variable.

Question 25

Independent Variable

Accepted Answer

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Question 26

Dependent Variable

Accepted Answer

The variable that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

Question 27

Random Assignment

Accepted Answer

Randomly assigning participants to different experimental conditions to reduce preexisting differences between groups.

Question 28

Experimental Control

Accepted Answer

Controlling conditions and variables so that changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent variable.

Question 29

Features of Experiments That Help Establish Causality

Accepted Answer

Manipulation of an independent variable

Question 30

Biological Basis of Cognition

Accepted Answer

Methods used to study how brain structures and activity relate to cognition and behavior.

Question 31

Lesion Studies

Accepted Answer

Studies of individuals with brain damage to understand associations between brain regions and functions.

Question 32

Lesion Studies: Pro

Accepted Answer

Can provide evidence about causation between brain regions and cognitive functions.

Question 33

Lesion Studies: Con

Accepted Answer

Lack of experimental control because researchers cannot randomly assign brain damage.

Question 34

Neuroimaging

Accepted Answer

Methods that produce precise

Question 35

Structural Neuroimaging

Accepted Answer

Imaging that shows the brain's physical structure

Question 36

Functional Neuroimaging

Accepted Answer

Imaging that shows brain activity

Question 37

Neuroimaging: Pro

Accepted Answer

Provides detailed information about brain structure and

Question 38

Neuroimaging: Con

Accepted Answer

Structural imaging does not directly provide information about moment-to-moment brain activity.

Question 39

Electrical Recording

Accepted Answer

Recording electrical activity produced by neurons; EEG measures this activity through electrodes placed on the scalp.

Question 40

EEG (Electroencephalography)

Accepted Answer

A method that records electrical brain activity through electrodes placed on the scalp.

Question 41

Electrical Recording: Pro

Accepted Answer

Provides precise information about when brain activity occurs.

Question 42

Electrical Recording: Con

Accepted Answer

Lacks precise information about where brain activity occurs.

Question 43

Dendrite

Accepted Answer

The part of a neuron that receives messages from other cells.

Question 44

Cell Body

Accepted Answer

The neuron's life-support center that contains the nucleus and other structures.

Question 45

Axon

Accepted Answer

The part of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body toward other neurons.

Question 46

Myelin Sheath

Accepted Answer

A covering around some axons that helps speed up neural impulses.

Question 47

Axon Terminals

Accepted Answer

The ends of an axon that convert electrical nerve impulses into chemical signals to communicate with neighboring cells.

Question 48

Synapse

Accepted Answer

The junction between the terminal branches of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.

Question 49

Action Potential

Accepted Answer

A brief electrical signal that travels along an axon.

Question 50

Properties of Action Potential

Accepted Answer

Action potentials are unidirectional and consistent in magnitude.

Question 51

Neurotransmitters

Accepted Answer

Chemical molecules released by neurons that allow neurons to communicate with one another and are associated with different functions.

Question 52

Cerebral Cortex

Accepted Answer

The outer layer of the brain involved in many complex cognitive processes.

Question 53

Frontal Lobe

Accepted Answer

Involved in planning

Question 54

Temporal Lobe

Accepted Answer

Involved in auditory processing

Question 55

Occipital Lobe

Accepted Answer

Involved primarily in vision and receives information related to sight.

Question 56

Parietal Lobe

Accepted Answer

Involved in spatial knowledge and sensation of touch.

Question 57

Homunculus

Accepted Answer

A map of the human body projected onto the brain's cerebral cortex.

Question 58

Projection Areas

Accepted Answer

Specific areas of the cerebral cortex that correspond to particular parts of the body or sensory information.

Question 59

Hippocampus

Accepted Answer

A subcortical structure critical for learning and memory.

Question 60

Amygdala

Accepted Answer

A subcortical structure critical for emotion and also involved in memory.

Question 61

Thalamus

Accepted Answer

A structure that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Question 62

Hypothalamus

Accepted Answer

A structure that controls behaviors serving biological needs.

Question 63

Localization of Function

Accepted Answer

The idea that certain regions of the brain are more active or specialized for particular functions.

Question 64

Lateralization of Function

Accepted Answer

The idea that certain functions are primarily associated with either the left or right hemisphere.

Term	Definition
Cognition: History and Methods	Cognitive psychology assumes the mind is an information-processing system.
Themes in Cognitive Psychology
Retrieval Practice	Testing memory for previously learned information.
Elaboration	Connecting or expanding on information to be learned; elaboration improves memory more than rote memorization.
Spaced Practice	Distributing study sessions over time; improves long-term retention compared with cramming.
Growth Mindset	The belief that intellectual abilities can be learned and developed.
Fixed Mindset	The belief that intellectual abilities are set and cannot substantially change.
Introspection	Reflecting on one's own thoughts and feelings.
Limitations of Introspection	Mental processes and representations cannot be directly observed or measured through introspection.
Behaviorism	The approach that focuses on measurable and recordable events and behavior rather than unobservable mental processes.
Limitations of Behaviorism	Behaviorism cannot adequately explain internal mental processes and representations.
4 Observations That Contributed to the Cognitive Revolution	1. Debate on language acquisition; 2. Mental maps in rats (Tolman's study); 3. Gestalt principles of perception; 4. Role of schemas in memory.
Cognitive Revolution	The shift toward studying internal mental processes using indirect measures because mental processes cannot be directly observed.
Cognitive Psychologists' Approach to Mental Processes	Use indirect measures to study invisible mental processes and representations that have visible consequences.
Indirect Measures of Mental Representation	Accuracy
Accuracy	An indirect measure of mental processes based on whether a person responds correctly.
Response Time	An indirect measure of mental processes based on how quickly a person responds.
Neuroimaging	An indirect measure of mental processes that uses brain imaging to examine brain structure or activity.
Case Study	An intensive analysis of a single individual or a small group.
Limitations of Case Studies	Lack of experimental control and usually no control group.
Correlational Study	A study that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related.
Limitation of Correlational Studies	Correlational studies cannot establish causality.
Directionality Problem	The problem of determining which variable came first or caused the other.
Third Variable Problem	The possibility that another variable explains the relationship between two variables.
Experiment	A study that manipulates at least one variable to examine its effect on another variable.
Independent Variable	The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.
Dependent Variable	The variable that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.
Random Assignment	Randomly assigning participants to different experimental conditions to reduce preexisting differences between groups.
Experimental Control	Controlling conditions and variables so that changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent variable.
Features of Experiments That Help Establish Causality	Manipulation of an independent variable
Biological Basis of Cognition	Methods used to study how brain structures and activity relate to cognition and behavior.
Lesion Studies	Studies of individuals with brain damage to understand associations between brain regions and functions.
Lesion Studies: Pro	Can provide evidence about causation between brain regions and cognitive functions.
Lesion Studies: Con	Lack of experimental control because researchers cannot randomly assign brain damage.
Neuroimaging	Methods that produce precise
Structural Neuroimaging	Imaging that shows the brain's physical structure
Functional Neuroimaging	Imaging that shows brain activity
Neuroimaging: Pro	Provides detailed information about brain structure and
Neuroimaging: Con	Structural imaging does not directly provide information about moment-to-moment brain activity.
Electrical Recording	Recording electrical activity produced by neurons; EEG measures this activity through electrodes placed on the scalp.
EEG (Electroencephalography)	A method that records electrical brain activity through electrodes placed on the scalp.
Electrical Recording: Pro	Provides precise information about when brain activity occurs.
Electrical Recording: Con	Lacks precise information about where brain activity occurs.
Dendrite	The part of a neuron that receives messages from other cells.
Cell Body	The neuron's life-support center that contains the nucleus and other structures.
Axon	The part of a neuron that carries messages away from the cell body toward other neurons.
Myelin Sheath	A covering around some axons that helps speed up neural impulses.
Axon Terminals	The ends of an axon that convert electrical nerve impulses into chemical signals to communicate with neighboring cells.
Synapse	The junction between the terminal branches of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.
Action Potential	A brief electrical signal that travels along an axon.
Properties of Action Potential	Action potentials are unidirectional and consistent in magnitude.
Neurotransmitters	Chemical molecules released by neurons that allow neurons to communicate with one another and are associated with different functions.
Cerebral Cortex	The outer layer of the brain involved in many complex cognitive processes.
Frontal Lobe	Involved in planning
Temporal Lobe	Involved in auditory processing
Occipital Lobe	Involved primarily in vision and receives information related to sight.
Parietal Lobe	Involved in spatial knowledge and sensation of touch.
Homunculus	A map of the human body projected onto the brain's cerebral cortex.
Projection Areas	Specific areas of the cerebral cortex that correspond to particular parts of the body or sensory information.
Hippocampus	A subcortical structure critical for learning and memory.
Amygdala	A subcortical structure critical for emotion and also involved in memory.
Thalamus	A structure that relays incoming sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus	A structure that controls behaviors serving biological needs.
Localization of Function	The idea that certain regions of the brain are more active or specialized for particular functions.
Lateralization of Function	The idea that certain functions are primarily associated with either the left or right hemisphere.
Integration of Brain Areas	The process by which spatially separated brain regions communicate and coordinate their activity to enable complex behavior.
Widespread Activation	Activation occurring throughout large areas of the brain
Plasticity Due to Experience	The brain's ability to change based on experience; experiences are represented through changes in neural activity.
Split-Brain Patients	Patients whose corpus callosum has been damaged or severed
Contralateral Organization	The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body
Capgras Syndrome	A condition in which a person recognizes a familiar person visually but believes that person is an impostor
Visual Perception and Recognition	The processes through which the brain interprets visual sensory information and identifies objects and people.
Why Visual Perception Is Complex	Visual sensory input is ambiguous
Sensation	The process of gathering sensory input from the environment.
Perception	The process of making sense of sensory input.
Top-Down Processing	Processing influenced by prior knowledge
Bottom-Up Processing	Processing that begins with the features of the stimulus itself and builds toward perception.
Gestalt Principles of Perception	Principles describing how people naturally organize sensory input into predictable patterns.
Cornea	The clear protective outer layer of the eye that helps focus incoming light.
Pupil	The opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
Iris	The colored part of the eye that controls how much light enters through the pupil.
Lens	The structure that focuses incoming light onto the retina.
Retina	The layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors that detect light.
Fovea	The area of the retina responsible for the sharpest and most detailed vision.
Optic Nerve	The nerve that carries visual information from the eye to the brain.
Blind Spot	The normal gap in the visual field located where the optic nerve exits the eye.
Rods	Photoreceptors that are sensitive to light and movement and are more common in the peripheral retina.
Cones	Photoreceptors responsible for color and fine detail; concentrated near the fovea.
Transduction	The process of converting physical sensory energy
Path of Visual Information	Eye → retina → optic nerve → optic chiasm → optic tracts → lateral geniculate nucleus → optic radiations → primary visual cortex.
Lateral Inhibition	The process by which stimulated retinal cells inhibit the activity of neighboring retinal cells.
Edge Enhancement	The process by which retinal cells enhance abrupt changes in luminance
Mach Band Illusion	An illusion in which the visual system exaggerates the contrast between edges of slightly different shades of gray.
Dorsal ("Where") Pathway	A visual pathway from the occipital lobe to the parietal lobe involved in spatial configuration
Ventral ("What") Pathway	A visual pathway from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe involved in recognizing form and identity.
Parallel Processing	The process by which different features of a stimulus are processed separately but simultaneously.
Binding Problem	The problem of explaining how separately processed features are combined into a single
Binocular Disparity	A depth cue based on the slight difference between the images projected onto each retina because the eyes are spaced apart.
Occlusion/Interposition	A pictorial depth cue in which one object partially blocks or covers another
Relative Height/Elevation	A depth cue in which objects positioned higher in the visual field are often perceived as farther away.
Relative Size	A depth cue in which
Texture Gradient	A depth cue involving the gradual change in the fine details and texture of a surface as distance increases.
Linear Perspective/Perspective Convergence	A depth cue in which parallel lines appear to gradually come together as they extend toward the horizon.
Familiar Size	A depth cue in which an object's distance is judged using prior knowledge of its typical size.
Ponzo Illusion	An illusion in which the brain misjudges the size of identical objects because of surrounding depth cues.
Prosopagnosia	Face blindness; difficulty recognizing familiar faces.
View-Dependent Recognition	The idea that identifying an object or face can depend on the specific angle or perspective from which it is viewed.
Inversion Effect	The difficulty recognizing objects or faces when they are presented upside down compared with their normal orientation.
Holistic Recognition	Perceiving and identifying an object or face as a whole
Effects of Experience on Face Recognition	Experience tunes the visual system to recognize the specific types of faces and variations encountered most often.
Greeble Study	A series of psychological and cognitive neuroscience experiments using novel objects called Greebles to study object and face recognition and the effects of experience.

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Psych Exam 1 Cog