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PSYC 328 Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| gender | psychological experience and cultural roles |
| sex | inborn biological characteristics related to reproduction |
| gender identity | personal sense of self's gender |
| gender binary | gender as two distinct opposing groups |
| non-binary | not exclusively male or female, can be its own gender category |
| intersex | umbrella term for people with developmental sex disorders |
| trans | umbrella term for transgender spectrum |
| old fashioned sexism | overt, explicit |
| modern sexism | subtle, covert, denies discrimination and need for gender equality |
| 1st wave feminism | suffrage |
| 2nd wave feminism | sexual freedom, reproductive rights, equal pay |
| 3rd wave feminism | intersectionality |
| 4th wave feminism | critique gender binary, reproductive justice, #MeToo |
| liberal feminism | men and women are inherently equal, can achieve equality within system |
| cultural feminism | women have unique qualities that should be elevated by society |
| radical feminism | male control and domination, men subordinate women so change within the system won't work |
| women of color feminism | other types overemphasize gender and underemphasize race, intersectionality |
| bias in theoretical models | samples, research questions |
| bias in data collection | researcher + observer effects (researcher or participant characteristics influence behavior or collection) |
| bias in data analysis | ignoring alternative explanations, practical v. statistical significance, female deficit model (men as standard) |
| bias in communicating results | publication bias, findings distorted by media, confirmation bias |
| confounding variable | variable that affects study but is not meant to |
| stereotype | belief about a group |
| prejudice | negative emotions about a group |
| women are seen as less competent when | act more masculine, little display of qualifications, men evaluating |
| discrimination | biased actions towards group members |
| competent but not warm elicit | admiration, envy |
| warm but not competent elicit | pity |
| not warm or competent elicit | contempt |
| 4 reasons gender stereotyping is a problem | 1. male as normative 2. group polarization 3. biased interpretations of behavior 4. self fulfilling prophecy |
| stereotype threat + math | women performed worse when stereotype was mentioned |
| stereotype threat + preschool | girls performed slower when stereotype mentioned |
| kids have understanding of gender categories/toys/jobs at age | 2-5 |
| allele | different variations of the same gene |
| XY | male |
| XX | female |
| x-linked inheritance | males only have 1 x so recessive gene more likely to be expressed |
| gene expression | some genes must have a prerequisite to be expressed |
| disorders of sex development | person's sex is atypical |
| sex chromosome DSD | irregular chromosomes |
| Aneuploidy | zygote doesn't have 2 sex chromosomes (has xxx, xxy, x), error in sperm/egg or cell division after conception |
| 2 types of sex chromosomes DSD | 1. Turner syndrome (X) 2. Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) |
| Turner syndrome (X) | abnormal physical development, 1 in every 2k female births, short, cardiac probs, gonadal dysgenesis, use estrogen replacement therapy |
| Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) | 1 in every 500-1k male births, reduced physical masculization |
| 1 type of 46 XX DSD | Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |
| Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) | genetically female but masculinized appearance bc of high androgen exposure, 1 in every 10-15k births |
| 2 types of 46 XY DSD | 1. 5 alpha reductase deficiency 2. Androgen insensitivity syndrome |
| 5 alpha reductase deficiency | missing enzyme to produce hormones for male external genitalia, most raised as girls |
| Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) | can be complete or partial, prob with androgen receptors (don't respond to testosterone, raised female with female external genitalia, Puerto Rico |
| 2 main sex hormones | 1. androgens 2. estrogens |
| when do men have high levels of testosterone (3 times) | prenatally, first weeks, puberty |
| when do women have high levels of estrogen (2 times) | prenatally, puberty-menopause |
| organizational effects of hormones | permanent changes to body structures |
| activational effects of hormones | short-lived and reversible changes |
| 3 samples for studying effects of androgen on behavior | twins, CAH, 5 alpha reductase deficiency |
| females CAH toy/activity preferences | play with boy toys more |
| rheus monkey toy preferences | prefer more masculine, girls are more flexible |
| hormones + aggression | androgens, higher level of aggression in boys (small effect size) |
| hormones + sexual desire | androgens related, males and females |
| hormones + mental health | estrogen, higher risk of depression or ED in girls |
| hormones + gender affirming care | testostereone increased aggression in trans men |
| hormones + adolescent hormone therapy | testosterone increases spatial ability, estrogen increases fluency and memory |
| hormones + cognition | little effect |
| early puberty females | more emotional distress/problem behavior |
| early/late puberty males | popular/less confidence |
| evidence for behavior effecting hormones | 1. testosterone rises in competition 2. testosterone rises when aggressive |
| distribution | range and frequency of scores |
| normal distribution | all measures of central tendency are equal |
| 3 measures of central tendency | 1. mean 2. median 3. mode |
| 3 measures of variability | 1. range 2. standard deviation (sq rt of variance) 3. variance (summed sq difference from mean) |
| effect size | size of difference btwn 2 samples given the variability within samples (how different the groups are) |
| Cohen's d | measure of standardized effect size (how far group means are in SD units), M(males)-M(females)/SD |
| alpha bias | overemphasize difference |
| beta bias | minimize difference |
| height/weight differences | small til puberty, males avg 5 in taller |
| puberty onset differences | females 2y before males, males have longer growth spurt |
| strength differences | after 13 males stronger |
| biological vulnerability differences | males more vulnerable, after 30 females outnumber males |
| primary sex ratio (at conception) | 1:1 (historically 120m:100f) |
| secondary sex ration (at birth) | 105m:100f |
| brain size difference | men's are larger (4-11%, their bodies are larger too) |
| brain lateralization differences | no significant difference (women tiny amount less) |
| kids' brain structure | boys have slightly larger amygdala, smaller hippocampus+ caudate |
| proximal explanations | immediate causes (genes, brain, hormones) |
| distal explanations | adaption causes |
| criticisms of evolutionary theory | doesn't account for within sex differences, hard to test |
| no differences in reaching, sitting, crawling, walking until what age | 2 |
| motor development strength | difs start in preschool, widens after adulthood, biological difs in puberty |
| motor development athletic ability | biggest difs in speed/strength/power, minimal differences in technical skills |
| cognitive development confidence | males moderately higher (largely higher in male typical tasks), females large ly higher in female typical tasks |
| motor development movement style | stride size, crossing legs, adults consistently different kids dif in kindergarten |
| cognitive development sound pitch | males deeper, no structural dif in kids til puberty but boys have deeper tone |
| motor development activity level | dif start small but grow |
| sensation/perception | females slightly better at detection/perceptual speed/fine motor, males slightly better at visual acuity |
| math ability | generally no dif (except SAT) |
| overall intelligence | no dif |
| verbal ability | females slightly better |
| spatial ability | boys slightly better at navigation/visualization, boys moderately better at mental rotation/line perception |
| SAT | more females take it, female under prediction effect (do worse on SAT but better in college), males score higher in math |
| memory | females small/moderately better, |
| early language development | from 2-6 girls are better, girls small/moderately better at reading/writing |
| speech and language disorders | more in boys, stuttering 3-4x, dyslexia 2-10x |
| verbal fluency | girls moderately better |
| language use | talk same amount |
| achievement motivation | desire/intrinsic motivation to do things and do them well, similar |
| attitudes about success | males more confident, less influenced by others |
| attribution for succes | women- external for success internal for failure men- internal for success external for failure |
| toy preferences | show by 2/3y, boys show stronger |
| preference for pink | both start with less preference for pink |
| perception and preference for jobs | interest in gender typical jobs, male jobs as higher status, novel jobs no dif |
| 3 ways to measure emotional expression | 1. surveys 2. observation 3. physiological |
| self reports of emotions | more intense, open, and longer emotions preschool same amount of tantrums boys more likely to hit |
| self conscious emotions | females more guilt and shame (moderately more about body), males more embarrassment and pride |
| observational studies of emotions | women more faces/gestures (except anger), boys have more anger and sadness and see fear as a girl emotion |
| smiling | girls smile more at 13y |
| crying | same rate until 2y, girls more in adolescence |
| physiological measures of emotion | no major differences |
| decoding emotions | girls better until adolescence, after same but women more confident in it |
| sympathy/empathy | group expressed more if told their group does express more, women more empathy |
| social cognition | cognitive skills that impact social relationships |
| theory of mind | understand others have their own thoughts/feelings (4-5y), girls develop sooner |
| perspective taking | 7-8y, girls better |
| helping behavior | men more helpful (esp heroic, women nurture), in kids girls are slightly more helpful |
| expressing interest in babies/pets | women more if they have kids/same in kids for pets+babies |
| 23types of aggression | 1. physical 2. verbal 3. relational |
| aggression trends | males moderately more, girls slightly more in relational aggression |
| 3 stages of morality Kohlberg | 1. pre conventional (avoid punishment) 2. conventional (respect rules) 3. post conventional (ethics and values) |
| Carol Gilligan's morality | 1. morality of Justice (more boys) 2. morality of care (more girls) small effect sizes |
| temperament | girls largely more effortful control, boys moderately more activity level/surgency, overall similar |
| Big 5 | extraversion girls slightly more, agreeable/tendermindedness girls moderately/largely more, neuroticism girls moderately more |
| self esteem | before adolescence no dif, after males show small/moderately more (esp appearance/athletic ability) |
| genetic and hormonal explanation sample and criticisms | sample: people with atypical genetic/hormonal combinations criticisms: doesn't account for all differences, small samples, no isolation, complex |
| freud's psychoanalytic theory | genitals and knowledge of them guide development |
| Nancy Chodorow psychoanalytic theory | girls identify with femininity boys with whatever isn't, identify with primary caregiver/imitate parent |
| criticisms of psychoanalytic theory | small samples of clinical cases, too much emphasis on sexuality and early years, not empirical |
| criticisms of social learning theory | child is seen as passive, ignores individual difs+cog development, doesn't explain importance of gender |
| social role theory | social roles and stereotypes maintain each other, women more communal men more agentic |
| Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory | nested system of influence |
| modern perspective | there is an objective world that can be found with science |
| post modern social construction | no objective world, gender difs because they are functional but can change, doing gender |
| criticism of social construction | ignores biological influence |
| constructivism | child is active participant and constructs their own knowledge |
| Bandura’s social cognitive theory | adds to social learning, triadic reciprocal determinism (cognition, environment, behavior) |
| Bem’s gender schema theory | kids organize knowledge into schemas which affect interactions/processing |
| Developmental intergroup theory | kids establish gender is an important category then categorize people, favor ingroup |
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