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Ecology Exam 1
Lectures 2-10 of BIO 2800
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Ecology | the study of interactions between organisms and their environment |
| species | a group of potentially interbreeding individuals that is reproductively isolated from other such groups |
| population | a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area |
| community | all populations of different species living and interacting in an area |
| Ecosystem | a community of organisms plus the nonliving environment they interact with |
| landscape | a larger geographic area containing multiple interacting ecosystems |
| biome | a large terrestrial ecological region characterized primarily by climate and dominant vegetation |
| biosphere | the global zone of life on earth |
| Evolution | a change in allele frequencies in a population over time |
| Do individuals evolve? | No individuals do not evolve over their lifetime, rather a population evolves |
| Adaptation | an inherited characteristic that increases an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment |
| evolutionary adaptation | a characteristic that has become established in a population through natural selection because it improves fitness |
| fitness | an individuals to survive and reproduce relative to other individuals |
| relative fitness | the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to other individuals |
| selective pressures | an environmental factor that affects an organism's survival or reproductive success |
| selective pressures examples | predators, competition, temperature, disease, food availability, water availability, salinity |
| natural selection | the process by which individuals with heritable characteristics that increase fitness tend to contribute more offsprings to future generations |
| adaptive evolution | evolution that results in a better fit between organisms and their environment |
| Natural selection is the mechanisms that consistently produces | adaptive evolution |
| Lamarckism | lamarck's rejected theory that organisms change through use and disuse of structures and pass acquired characteristics to offsprings |
| use and disuse | lamarck's idea that frequently used structures become stronger/more developed while unused structures regress |
| inheritance of acquired traits | lamarck's idea that traits acquired during an individual's lifetime could be passed to offsprings |
| uniformitarianism | lyell's idea that the same slow geological processes operating today also shaped earth in the past |
| HMS Beagle | ship on which Darwin traveled as a naturalist from 1831-1836 |
| Natural history | observation and description of organisms, their environments, behaviors and interactions |
| Malthusian theory | the idea that populations have the potential to increase rapidly, but resources limit population growth |
| struggle for existence | competition among organisms because resources are limited |
| darwin's basic argument | Variation → overproduction → limited resources → competition → differential survival/reproduction → inheritance → evolution |
| modern synthesis | the integration of Darwin's theory of natural selection with Mendelian genetics and later molecular genetics |
| genes | a segment of DNA associated with a particular biological function or trait |
| allele | a different version of a gene |
| gene pool | the complete collection of alleles present in a population |
| allele frequency | the proportion of a particular allele in a population |
| genotype | the genetic combination of alleles an individual possesses |
| phenotype | the observable characteristic of an organism |
| homozygous | having two copies of the same allele |
| AA or aa | homozygous |
| heterozygous | having two different alleles |
| Aa | heterozygous |
| dominant allele | an allele whose phenotype is expressed at least one copy is present |
| recessive allele | an allele whose phenotype generally requires two copies to be expressed |
| mutation | a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Mutation is the ultimate source of new genetic variation |
| germline/gamete mutation | a mutation occurring in sex cells that can potentially be passed to offspring |
| mutation rate | frequencies at which mutations occur |
| natural selection | changes allele frequencies because individuals with different traits have different reproductive success |
| Genetic drift | a random change in allele frequencies caused by chance |
| genetic drift is strongest in | small populations |
| bottleneck effect | a type of genetic drift that occurs when a population suddenly becomes much smaller because of a random event such as a natural disaster |
| genetic diversity | the amount of variation within a population |
| founder effect | a type of genetic drift occurring when a small number of individuals establish a new population |
| inbreeding | mating between genetically related individuals |
| inbreeding depression | reduced biological fitness associated with increased homozygosity and expression of harmful recessive alleles |
| Inbreeding does not itself change allele frequencies, instead it increases: | homozygosity; likelihood of harmful recessive alleles being paired and decreases heterozygosity |
| Gene flow | movement of alleles between populations through migration and reproduction |
| Gene flow tends to make populations | more genetically similar |
| sexual selection | selection caused by differences in mating success |
| Sexual selection examples | female blue-footed boobies may prefer males with brighter feet, causing traits associated with brighter feet to become more common |
| stabilizing selection | favors the intermediate phenotypes and selects against both extremes |
| directional selection | favors one extreme of a phenotype |
| disruptive selection | favors both extremes while selecting against the intermediate phenotype |
| historical constraint | evolution works with structures and genetic variation inherited from the past |
| evolutionary constraint | limitations that prevent evolution from producing every theoretically possible trait |
| trade-off | improvement in one function may reduce performance in another |
| chance | random events can influence evolutionary outcomes |
| adaptive landscape | a conceptual model showing how different combinations of allele frequencies correspond to different levels of fitness |
| fitness peak | a combination of traits/allele frequencies associated with relatively high fitness |
| Evolution is not goal-directed, instead | evolution responds to current environmental conditions and existing variations |
| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium | a mathematical medal describing genotype frequencies in a population where allele frequencies remain constant over time |
| Hardy-weinberg equation | p² + 2pq + q² = 1 |
| Hardy-Weinberg assumptions | no natural selection, very large/infinite population, random mating, no gene flow, and no mutation |
| Selection coefficients (s) | measures the strength of selection against a genotype |
| relative fitness (W) | fitness of one genotype relative to the most fit genotype |
| Selection differential | difference between the average phenotype of the selected parents and the average phenotype of the original population |
| heritability | the proportion of variation in a trait that is attributale to genetic differences within the particular population and environment being studies |
| phenotypic plasticity | ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to environmental conditions |
| genotype x environment interaction | the effect of a genotype depends on the environment in which it occurs |
| common garden experiment | individuals from different populations are raised under the same environmental conditions to help determine whether differences have a genetic basis |
| reciprocal transplant experiment | individuals are moved between environments/populations to determine how genotype and environment contribute to observed traits |
| temperature | average kinetic energy of molecules |
| microclimate | small-scale variation in environmental conditions |
| microclimate examples | under a tree, inside a burrow, on a shaded slope, beneath a rock |
| macroclimate | large-scale, long-term weather variation |
| specific heat | amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance |
| conduction | heat transfer through direct contact |
| convection | heat transfer through movement of air or water |
| emissivity | ability of a surface to emit thermal energy |
| evaporation | loss of heat when liquid water becomes vapor |
| ectotherm | obtains heat from external sources |
| endotherm | generates most heat internally through metabolism |
| poikilotherm | body temperature varies with environmental temperature |
| homeotherm | maintains body temperature within relatively narrow limits |
| thermal neutral zone | range of environmental temperatures where an endotherm can maintain body temperature without altering metabolic rate |
| vasodilation | blood vessels wider leading to increased heat transfer to the surface |
| vasoconstriction | blood vessels narrow leading to reduces heat loss |
| countercurrent circulation | blood flow arrangement that facilitates heat exchange between adjacent vessels |
| acclimation | individual adjustment to environmental change |
| adaption | population-level evolutionary change |
| water potential | describes the tendency of water to move |
| water moves from | high to low water potential |
| solute potential | reduction in water potential caused by dissolved solutes |
| matric potential | reduction in water potential caused by adhesion/cohesion between water and surfaces |
| pressure potential | component of water potential related to pressure |
| relative humidity | WVD ÷ SWVP × 100 |
| vapor pressure deficit | SWVP − WVP |
| evaporation | major route of water loss for terrestrial organisms |
| metabolic water | water produced during metabolism |
| transpiration | water loss from plants, primarily through stomata |
| stomata | small openings that regulate gas exchange and water loss |
| suberization | addition of suberin cell walls, reducing water movement |
| C3 plants | plants using the C3 pathway; experience a major water conservation vs. CO2 uptake trade-off under hot/dry conditions |
| C4 plants | plant using spatial separation of carbon fixation and the calvin cycle |
| CAM plants | plants using temporal separation; generally open stomata at night and close them during the day |
| Weather | short-term atmospheric conditions |
| climate | long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation |
| latitude | distance north/south of the equator |
| altitude | elevation above sea level |
| adiabatic cooling | air cools as it rises, expands, and experiences lower pressures |
| lapse rate | rate at which temperature decreases with elevation |
| earth's obliquity | earth's approximately 23.4 axial tilt |
| projection effect | solar energy spreads across a larger surface area at high latitudes |
| absorption effect | solar radiation passes through more atmosphere at high latitudes |
| Milankovitch cycles | long-term changes in Earth's orbital characteristics |
| Hadley cell | atmospheric circulation pattern involving rising warm air near the equator and sinking air around 30 latitude |
| Coriolis effect | apparent deflection of moving air/water caused by earth's rotation |
| ombrothermic chart | graph showing monthly temperature and precipitation |
| dry season | on your course diagram, when temperature curve is above the precipitation curve |
| excess-water period | period characterized by precipitation above 100 mm |
| tropical rainforest | near equator, high rainfall, little temperature seasonality, approximately 2,000-4,000 mm annual precipitation, strong nutrient leaching |
| tropical savanna | strongly seasonal rainfall, mostly grasses, scattered trees |
| grassland | primarily grass-dominated ecosystem |
| desert | biome characterized by very low precipitation |
| mediterranean shrubland | wet/mild winters and hot/dry summers |
| temperate deciduous forest | seasonal temperatures and substantial precipitation |
| boreal forest | northern coniferous/evergreen forest |
| bog | acidic, waterlogged wetland with peat |
| tundra | cold, treeless biome with permafrost and short growing seasons |
| hydrologic cycle | movement of water through Earth's atmosphere, land, organisms, groundwater, and surface water |
| turnover time | time required to replace the entire volume of a resevoir |
| atmosphere | 9 days |
| rivers | 12-20 days |
| oceans | 3,1000 years |
| ekman spiral | layer-by-layer movement of surface ocean water where each deeper layer is deflected because of the Coriolis effect |
| ekman transport | the overall/net movement of surface water resulting from the Ekman spiral |
| upwelling | deep, cold, nutrient-rich water rises toward the surface |
| thermohaline circulation | large-scale ocean circulation driven by temperature and salinity differences |
| AMOC | atlantic meridional overturning circulation |
| dissolved oxygen | oxygen available in water for aquatic organisms |
| eutrophication | nutrient enrichment that causes increased algal producion |
| hypoxia | low dissolved oxygen |
| anoxia | no dissolved oxygen |
| compensation depth | depth below which photosynthesis is lower than respiration |
| thermal stratification | layering of water due to differences in density |
| thermocline | zone where temperature changes rapidly with depth |
| epilimnion | warm well-mixed upper lake layer |
| hypolimnion | cold, deeper lake layer |
| littoral zone | shallow region near shore |
| neritic zone | oceans water over the continental shelf |
| oceanic zone | open ocean beyond the continental shelf |
| pelagic zone | open-water region |
| epipelagic zone | sunlit upper part of the pelagic zone |
| lentic | still/slow -moving water |
| lotic | flowing freshwater |
| autochthonous | energy/material produced within an aquatic system |
| allochthonous | energy/material entering an aquatic system from outside |
| chemoautotroph | organism that obtains energy from chemical reactions rather then sunlight |
| behavioral ecology | study of how behavior mediates interactions between organisms and their environment |
| sociobiology | study of biological bases and patterns of social behaviors |
| stimulus | environmental signals that triggers a response |
| response | behavior triggered by a stimulus |
| species recognition | ability to identify members of one's own, helping prevent wasted mating opportunities |
| social behavior | interactions between individuals of the same species |
| altruism | behavior that benefits another individual, potential at a cost to the actor |
| cooperation | individuals work together or exchange resources/assistance |
| selfishness | behavior prioritizing one/s welfare |
| sexual dimorphism | physical differences between males and females of the same species |
| sexual selection | differences in reproductive success resulting from differences in mating success |
| intrasexual selection | competition between members of the same sex for mates |
| monogamy | one partner at a time |
| polyandry | one female mates with multiple males |
| nuptial gift | food or another resource provided during a courtship/mating |
| polygynandry | multiple males and females mates with multiple partners |
| cociality | group living and cooperation within a species |
| prosociality | behaviors that benefit other individuals |
| eusociality | highly organized social systems involving: 1. multiple generations living together 2. cooperative care of young 3. reproductive and non-reproductive castes |
| cooperative breeding | individuals cooperate in raising offsprings |
| in selection | natural selection favoring behaviors that increase the reproductive success of relatives |
| inclusive fitness | personal reproduction + effects of helping genetically related individuals reproduce |
| haplodiploidy | common in bees, ants, and wasps sex determines where: females=diploid males=haploid |
| territory | area defended against other individuals |
| home range | area an individual normally uses |
| territoriality | exclusive defense/use of part of a home range |
| dominance hierarchy | ordered ranking within a social group based on outcomes of aggressive interactions |
| spatial variation | environment difference across space |
| patch | distinct area within a heterogenous landscape |
| patch isolation | how seperated patches are from one another |
| fine-grained environment | individuals move across many small environmental patches and experience substantial environmental variation |
| coarse-grained environment | individuals experience relatively large, consistent environmental patches |
| temporal variation | environmental variation through time |
| amplitude | magnitude of environmental change |
| predictability | how reliably environmental changes can be anticipated |
| local adaptation | when a population evolves traits that make it particularly suited to its local environment |
| ecotype | a locally adapted population within a species |
| gene flow | movement of alleles between populations |
| gene flow homogenization | gene flow tends to make allele frequencies more similar among populations |
| barrier to gene flow | a physical, behavioral, or other barrier that prevents genes form moving between populations |
| subspecies | populations of the same species living in different geographic regions that have distinct biological characteristics |
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