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PGH LECTURE
patho by sir echo
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| From the Greek word pathos (meaning “suffering”) and -logia (meaning “study”). It is the study of disease process. | PATHOLOGY |
| Any abnormal change in the function or structure within the body. It is a morbid process that can affect one or more organs. | DISEASE |
| Sequence of events that leads from the cause of a disease to abnormalities and finally to the manifestations. | PATHOGENESIS |
| An objective evidence of disease such as a fever. | SIGN |
| A subjective evidence of a disease, such as pain or a headache. | SYMPTOMS |
| A set of the signs and symptoms that occur together as part of a specific disease process. | SYNDROME |
| The identification of a disease. | DIAGNOSIS (Dx) |
| An attempt to determine which one of several diseases can be causing the signs and symptoms that are present. | DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS |
| A prediction of the probable course and outcome of a disorder | PROGNOSIS |
| A condition that has a rapid onset, a severe course, and a relatively short duration. | ACUTE CONDITION |
| A condition of long duration. Although such diseases can be controlled, they are rarely cured. | CHRONIC CONDITION |
| The temporary, partial, or complete disappearance of the symptoms of a disease without having achieved a cure. | REMISSION |
| Study of the cause of the disease. | ETIOLOGY |
| The sudden worsening of a medical condition or its symptoms. For example, if someone has asthma and suddenly has a severe flare-up or asthma attack, that is an exacerbation. | EXACERBATION |
| A chronic condition or complication that results directly from a previous disease or injury. For example, scarring is a sequela of a deep burn, and long-term fatigue can be a sequela of COVID-19. | SEQUELA |
| A symptom or sign that is 100% characteristic of a specific disease. If a doctor sees a pathognomonic sign, it means they can make an immediate, definitive diagnosis because no other condition causes it. | PATHOGNOMONIC |
| An unexpected discovery made during a medical test or examination that was actually being done for a completely different reason. | INCIDENTAL FINDING |
| Cause is unknown. | IDIOPATHIC |
| Cause is a result of the treatment given to the patient. | IATROGENIC |
| Subdivided into: 1. Genetic and Developmental Disease 2. Acquired injuries and inflammatory disease 3. Hyperplasia and neoplasms. | STRUCTURAL DISEASE |
| Diseases resulting from functional disturbances without structural change. | FUNCTIONAL DISEASE |
| Deformities present at birth. | CONGENITAL DISEASE |
| A developmental disorder genetically transmitted from either parent to the child and derived from ancestors. | HEREDITARY DISEASE |
| Subdivided into Infective, Allergic, and Toxic diseases. | INFLAMMATORY DISEASE |
| Results from invasion by microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi. | INFECTIVE DISEASE |
| An overreaction of the body's own defenses. | ALLERGIC DISEASE |
| Caused by poisoning by biologic substances. | TOXIC DISEASE |
| Caused by deterioration of the body (e.g., Osteoporosis). | DEGENERATIVE DISEASE |
| Caused by a disturbance of the normal physiologic function of the body. | METABOLIC DISEASE |
| Results from mechanical forces (e.g., Impalement injury). | TRAUMATIC DISEASE |
| Results in new, abnormal tissue growth. | NEOPLASTIC DISEASE |
| Refers to the body's ability to wall-off and sequester an injurious agent, with the ultimate goal of safe removal of said agents. | INFLAMMATION |
| Cardinal Signs of Acute Inflammation | Heat (Calor); Redness (Rubor); Swelling (Tumor); Pain (Dolor); Loss of Tissue Function (Functio Laesa). |
| An abnormal accumulation of fluid in body cavities or intercellular spaces. Can be localized within a structure or dispersed throughout the body. | EDEMA |
| Type of inflammatory reaction that causes the injurious agent to become a walled-off ball of pus. | ABSCESS |
| Type of inflammatory reaction that is the result of a healing wound located on the skin or a mucous membrane. | ULCERS |
| An acute bacterial infection of the skin, common in areas where damaged skin allows a portal of entry for bacteria. A byproduct of bacterial reproduction in tissue is excretion of methane (forming air in tissue). | CELLULITIS |
| Abnormal extracellular fluid consisting essentially of water with a low cell count, making them usually clear. | TRANSUDATES |
| Fluid filtering from the circulatory system into lesions containing water, pus, and/or blood; not clear due to infected fluid (pus/bacteria). | EXUDATES |
| Obstruction of normal blood flow to an organ or structure, usually resulting from narrowing of blood vessels (plaque) or thrombic occlusion. | ISCHEMIA |
| Loss of blood supply to an organ or structure causing the surrounding tissue to become necrotic. | INFARCT |
| Bleeding or the loss of blood from the circulatory system. | HEMORRHAGE |
| Occurs as a result of a break in a blood vessel causing pooling of blood below the surface of skin, organ, or structure. | HEMATOMA |
| A type of hematoma commonly referred to as a bruise or contusion. Also defined under skin disorders as skin discoloration resulting from a ruptured blood vessel into subcutaneous space | ECCHYMOSIS |
| Red or purple spots on the body caused by hemorrhage. | PURPURA |
| A type of purpura consisting of very small red or purple spots on the body. | PETECHIAE |
| The decrease in size of the cells within an organ or structure. | ATROPHY |
| Abnormal increase in cell size (opposite of atrophy); also sometimes referred to as hyperplasia or hypergenesis. | HYPERTROPHY |
| The inability of an organ or structure to form properly. Defective development can result in partial or complete loss of an organ. | APLASIA |
| Enlarged spleen (an example of hypertrophy). | SPLENOMEGALY |
| Abnormal proliferation of foreign cells forming a mass of tissue (mass or tumor) within an organ or structure that competes for nutrients. | NEOPLASM |
| The study of neoplasms. | ONCOLOGY |
| Self-limited tumor that will not spread or seed to distant sites within the host organism. | BENIGN NEOPLASM |
| Tumor that possesses the ability to spread to distant sites in the body using the lymphatic system or circulatory system (hematogenous spread). | MALIGNANT NEOPLASM |
| Condition resulting from untreated/undetected malignant neoplasms characterized by fatigue, atrophy, weakness, anorexia, wasting, and malnourishment; seen as end-stage cancer. | CACHEXIA |
| CANCER CATEGORIES - Arises from epithelial cells or tissues (breast, colon, pancreas). | CARCINOMA/ADENOCARCINOMA |
| CANCER CATEGORIES - Relatively rare, highly malignant cancer of soft or connective tissue (bone, cartilage, muscle, fat). | SARCOMA |
| CANCER CATEGORIES - Cancer of blood and blood-forming tissues. | LEUKEMIA |
| CANCER CATEGORIES - Originates in lymphatic tissues and affects lymphocyte production. | LYMPHOMA |
| Proliferation of immature blood cells unable to fight infection. | ACUTE LEUKEMIA |
| Proliferation of mature blood cells unable to fight infection. | CHRONIC LEUKEMIA |
| Most common type of lymphoma, found in spleen, liver, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and GI tract; diverse group of diseases with unknown etiology that can metastasize to liver, kidneys, spine, brain, lungs, and bone (forming an “ivory vertebra”). | NON-HODGKIN'S LYMPHOMA |
| Cancer of lymphatic tissue characterized by swollen, rubbery, pain-free lymph nodes; definitively diagnosed via lymph node biopsy showing Reed-Sternberg cells. | HODGKIN'S LYMPHOMA |
| Three Primary Methods of Treating Malignancies | 1. Surgery; 2. Chemotherapy; 3. Radiation Therapy. |
| Abnormal thickening of subcutaneous and cutaneous tissues. | ELEPHANTIASIS/ LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS |
| Epithelial injury caused by contact with a thermal, radioactive, chemical, or electrical agent (classified into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree). | BURNS |
| Loss of hair (baldness). Types include: Alopecia Areata, Alopecia Totalis, and Alopecia Universalis. | ALOPECIA |
| Chronic, inflammatory autoimmune skin disorder characterized by reddish cutaneous edema and raised, scaly plaques | PSORIASIS |
| Cancer caused by malignant stem cells in the stratum germinativum/stratum basale or basal layer. | BASAL CELL CARCINOMA |
| Most common type of skin cancer; develops in the epidermal layer, usually arising from pre-malignant lesions (actinic keratoses), with a scaly and often ulcerated surface. | SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA (SCC) |
| Rapidly spreading cancer of melanocytes detected by observing mole changes. Evaluated via ABCDE criteria: Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color, Diameter (>1/4 inch), and Evolution. | MALIGNANT MELANOMA |
| Caused by chronic deficiency of blood to tissues subjected to prolonged pressure. Prevention: position change, range of motion, air mattress. Treatment: topical agents, gelatin sponges, antibiotics, antiseptic irrigations, debridement. | DECUBITUS ULCERS |
| Highly contagious, acute, viral infection spread directly or indirectly by droplet nuclei from an infected person (chickenpox). | HERPES VARICELLA |
| Disease caused by the varicella-zoster virus (same virus as chickenpox). | HERPES ZOSTER |
| Characterized by areas of achromia (regions of no pigmentation). | VITILIGO |
| Benign (non-cancerous) tumor arising from an epithelial surface, usually growing in an outward direction. | PAPILLOMA |
| Deficient and imperfect formation of osseous tissue, skin coloration, inner ear, and teeth; also known as “Brittle bone disease”. Two main groups: Osteogenesis imperfecta congenita and Osteogenesis imperfecta tarda. | OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA (OI) |
| Meaning “without cartilage formation”; results in bone deformity and dwarfism. | ACHONDROPLASIA |
| “Marble bone” disease; characterizes disorders with increased bone density and defective bone contour. Bones are heavy, compact, yet brittle. | OSTEOPETROSIS |
| OSTEOPETROSIS TYPES: 1. ____ ________ disease (Adult osteopetrosis – benign form) 2. _____ _______ (Infantile osteopetrosis – lethal form). | ALBERS-SCHONBERG: CRANIOTUBULAR DYSPLASIAS |
| Characterized by a reduction in bone mass / loss of bone density, making patients susceptible to fractures (“washed-out” radiographic appearance). Measured via Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA/DXA) for Bone Mineral Density (BMD). | OSTEOPOROSIS |
| Failure of fingers or toes to separate, causing webbed digits. Types: Complete and Incomplete. | SYNDACTYLY |
| Presence of extra digits. | POLYDACTYLY |
| Congenital malformation of the foot preventing normal weight-bearing, caused by a shortened Achilles tendon that turns foot in and under. | CLUBFOOT (TALIPES EQUINOVARUS) |
| The foot turns inward at the ankle, causing the person to walk on the outer edge of the foot. | TALIPES VARUS |
| The foot turns outward at the ankle, causing the person to walk on the inner edge of the foot. | TALIPES VALGUS |
| The foot is permanently pointed downward (like a horse's hoof), making it difficult to bring the heel down to the ground. | TALIPES EQUINUS |
| The foot is permanently flexed upward toward the shin, causing the person to walk primarily on their heel. | TALIPES CALCANEUS |
| An inward angling of the bone towards the midline of the body, which causes the joint to bow outward. In the legs, this creates a wide gap between the knees when the ankles are touching. | GENU VARUS (BOW-LEGGEDNESS) |
| An outward angling of the bone away from the midline of the body, which causes the joint to turn inward. In the legs, the knees touch or rub together while the ankles remain wide apart. | GENU VALGUS (KNOCK-KNEES) |
| Acetabulum does not form completely; head of femur is displaced superiorly and posteriorly. Forms include Dislocation and Subluxation. | DEVELOPMENTAL DYSPLASIA OF THE HIP (DDH) |
| Abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. | SCOLIOSIS |
| Vertebra that takes on characteristics of both vertebrae on each side of a major division of the spine (e.g., Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebra / LSTV). | TRANSITIONAL VERTEBRA |
| Incomplete closure of the vertebral canal, particularly common in the lumbosacral area. | SPINA BIFIDA |
| Congenital abnormality in which the brain and cranial vault do not form. | ANENCEPHALY |
| Infection of the bone and bone marrow caused by a pathogenic microorganism. | OSTEOMYELITIS |
| Subacute or acute chronic osteomyelitis usually mistaken for a bone tumor. | BRODIE'S ABSCESS |
| Complication where bone infarction forms an avascular bone “island” within an abscess. | SEQUESTRUM FORMATION |
| Tuberculosis of the bone; a chronic inflammatory extrapulmonary bacterial infection affecting bones. | POTT'S DISEASE |
| Disease where joints and articulations become ankylosed, characterized radiographically by marginal osteophytes forming a “bamboo spine”. | ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS |
| Degenerative joint disease (“wear and tear” arthritis); most common type of arthritis. May form osteophytes. | OSTEOARTHRITIS |
| Spinal condition causing lower back pain when a vertebra slips out of place onto the vertebra below. | SPONDYLOLISTHESIS |
| Anterior slipping of the vertebral body. | ANTEROSPONDYLOLISTHESIS |
| Posterior slipping of vertebral body. | RETROSPONDYLOLISTHESIS |
| Cleft or breaking down of the vertebral body between superior and inferior articular processes (pars interarticularis); appears radiographically as a “collar” or “broken neck” on the “Scottie dog”. | SPONDYLOLYSIS |
| Degeneration / osteoarthritis of the spinal column from any cause (e.g., Cervical or Lumbar spondylosis). | SPONDYLOSIS |
| Surgical fusion of intervertebral joints of the backbone (lumbar fusion / spinal fusion / spondylodesis). | SPONDYLOSYNDESIS |
| Excessive bone growth (osteocartilaginous exostosis or plain exostosis). Types: Pedunculated or Sessile. | OSTEOCHONDROMA |
| Slow-growing benign tumor composed of hyaline cartilage from incomplete endochondral ossification; appears as a “bubbly” expansile lucent lesion with calcium deposits. | ENDOCHONDROMA |
| Also called osteoclastoma / myeloid sarcoma; characterized by multinucleated osteoclastic giant cells with a classic “soap bubble” appearance. | GIANT CELL TUMOR OF THE BONE |
| Most common primary malignancy of the skeleton arising from osteoblasts. | OSTEOSARCOMA/OSTEOGENIC SARCOMA |
| Osteitis deformans; characterized by an abnormal cycle of bone destruction followed by excessive bone growth and thickening. | PAGET'S DISEASE |
| Kahler's disease, is a common bone cancer caused by an overgrowth of plasma cells in bone marrow. | MULTIPLE MYELOMA |
| Congenital absence or closure of normal body orifice or tubular organ. | ATRESIA |
| Type of atresia involving the esophagus. | ESOPHAGEAL ATRESIA |
| Type of atresia involving the ileum. | ILEAL ATRESIA |
| Type of atresia involving the duodenum; shows classic “double bubble sign”. | DUODENAL ATRESIA |
| Type of atresia involving the colon. | COLONIC ATRESIA |
| Congenital disorder in which anal opening to the exterior is absent. | IMPERFORATE ANUS |
| Pyloric canal narrowed due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of pyloric sphincter. | HYPERTROPHIC PYLORIC STENOSIS |
| Intestines are not in their normal position (imaged via UGI series). | MALROTATION |
| Congenital aganglionic megacolon; absence of neurons in bowel wall, typically in sigmoid colon. | HIRSCHSPRUNG DISEASE |
| Backward flow of gastric acid and contents into the esophagus. | GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE (GERD) |
| Erosion of the mucous membrane, most commonly in the duodenal bulb and lesser curvature of the stomach. | PEPTIC ULCER |
| Crohn's disease / Ileitis; chronic inflammatory bowel disease of unknown cause. | REGIONAL ENTERITIS |
| Inflammation of the vermiform appendix, commonly caused by a fecalith. | APPENDICITIS |
| Inflammatory lesion of colonic mucosa; displays “lead pipe” sign. | ULCERATIVE COLITIS |
| Varicose veins in the esophagus. | ESOPHAGEAL VARICES |
| Cardiospasm / megaesophagus; failure of smooth muscle of alimentary canal to relax. | ACHALASIA |
| Peptic ulcer of lower esophagus, often with stricture. | BARRETT'S ESOPHAGUS |
| Spontaneous contractions of the esophagus. | TERTIARY PERISTALSIS |
| Mass in stomach formed by material not passing into intestine. | BEZOAR |
| Formed from hair (Rapunzel syndrome when extending through small bowel). | TRICHOBEZOAR |
| Composed of indigestible food material (e.g., cellulose). | PHYTOBEZOAR |
| Secondary to unripe persimmons. | DIOSPYROBEZOAR |
| Mixture of hair and plant components. | TRICHOPHYTOBEZOAR |
| Undigested medication tablets or semi-liquid drug masses. | PHARMACOBEZOAR |
| Undigested milk curds. | LACTOBEZOAR |
| Protrusion of a loop of bowel through a small opening (into canal or scrotum). | INGUINAL HERNIA |
| Permits portions of stomach to herniate into thoracic cavity (e.g., sliding hiatal hernia with Schatzki ring). | HIATAL HERNIA |
| Twisting of a bowel loop about its mesenteric base. | VOLVULUS |
| Occurs when a segment of bowel telescopes into a distal segment. | INTUSSUSCEPTION |
| Obstruction in small intestine. Types: Paralytic Ileus, Mechanical Ileus, Gallstone Ileus. | ILEUS |
| is a functional gut problem where your intestinal muscles stop working. The wave-like muscle movements that push food forward (peristalsis) pause or stop completely. | PARALYTIC ILEUS |
| also known as a mechanical bowel obstruction, happens when a physical object blocks the inside of the intestine. Food, fluid, and gas pile up behind the obstacle because they cannot move past it. | MECHANICAL ILEUS |
| a rare type of mechanical obstruction caused by a large gallstone. A large gallstone erodes through the gallbladder wall and slips directly into the digestive tract, where it gets wedged. | GALLSTONE ILEUS |
| Mucosal outpouching through the muscular layer of the esophagus. | ESOPHAGEAL DIVERTICULA |
| Most common, located at top of esophagus (false diverticulum). | ZENKER DIVERTICULUM |
| Cervical esophagus (false diverticulum). | KILLIAN-JAMIESON DIVERTICULUM |
| Middle region/chest (true diverticulum). | MIDESOPHAGEAL/THORACIC/TRACTION DIVERTICULUM |
| Distal esophagus near stomach. | EPIPHRENIC DIVERTICULUM |
| Presence of outpouchings (diverticula) in colon without inflammation. | COLONIC DIVERTICULUM/DIVERTICULOSIS |
| Disease caused by parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides | ASCARIASIS |
| Small masses of tissue arising from bowel wall projecting inward into lumen. | COLONIC POLYPS |
| Colorectal carcinoma affecting colon or rectum. | COLORECTAL CANCERS |
| Presence of gas/air in abdominal (peritoneal) cavity. | PNEUMOPERITONEUM |
| Accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. | ASCITES |
| Inflammation of the liver; acute hepatitis causes a “starry sky appearance” on ultrasound. | HEPATITIS |
| Prefix denoting relationship to bile. | CHOLE- |
| Prefix denoting sac or bladder. | CYSTO- |
| Radiographic examination of biliary ducts. | CHOLANGIOGRAM |
| Study of both gallbladder and biliary ducts. | CHOLECYSTOCHOLANGIOGRAM |
| Gallstones | CHOLELITHS |
| Condition of having gallstones. | CHOLELITHIASIS |
| Inflammation of the gallbladder. | CHOLECYSTITIS |
| Surgical removal of gallbladder. | CHOLECYSTECTOMY |
| Develops as lipids accumulate within hepatocytes forming free radicals. | FATTY LIVER DISEASE |
| Chronic liver condition where liver parenchyma and architecture are destroyed. | CIRRHOSIS |
| Yellowish discoloration of skin and whites of eyes. Types: Medical (non-obstructive) and Surgical (obstructive). | JAUNDICE |
| Primary neoplasm of the liver. | HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA |
| Hyaline membrane disease; disorder of premature infants or those born <37 weeks gestation. | RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME |
| Inflammation of the lung (pneumonitis) & compromised pulmonary function. | PNEUMONIA |
| Group of disorders causing chronic airway obstruction. | CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE |
| Arises from heavy smoking/pollution; symptoms include persistent cough and expectoration. | CHRONIC BRONCHITIS |
| Alveoli distend due to loss of elasticity; increase in air spaces distal to terminal bronchioles with destruction of alveolar walls. | EMPHYSEMA |
| Pulmonary fibrosis from inhalation of foreign inorganic dust. | PNEUMOCONIOSIS |
| Inhaling silica dust (miners, sandblasters). | SILICOSIS |
| Inhalation of coal dust (miner's lung). | ANTHRACOSIS |
| Inhalation of asbestos dust. | ASBESTOSIS |
| Localized area of dead (necrotic) lung tissue surrounded by inflammatory debris. | LUNG ABSCESS |
| Excess fluid collects in pleural cavity. | PLEURAL EFFUSION |
| Presence of air/gas in pleural cavity. | PNEUMOTHORAX |
| Incomplete expansion of part or all of a lung due to air passage blockage or pneumothorax. | ATELECTASIS |
| Metastatic lesions in lungs spread from distant primary cancers (e.g., uterine cancer). | PULMONARY METASTASES |
| Abnormal accumulation of fluid in extravascular compartments of lung. | PULMONARY EDEMA |
| Benign tumor-like malformation or tumors originating in lung parenchyma or bronchi. | HAMARTOMA/BRONCHOGENIC CARCINOMA |
| Occlusion of pulmonary arteries or branches, usually via venous thrombus. | PULMONARY EMBOLISM |
| Failure of ductus arteriosus (temporary fetal vessel) to close. | PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS |
| Narrowing of aorta at junction site. | COARCTATION OF THE AORTA |
| Defect in ventricular or atrial septum allowing blood shunting between chambers (mixing pulmonary and systemic blood). | SEPTAL DEFECTS |
| Combination of four heart defects; displays a “boot-shaped” heart radiographically. | TETRALOGY OF FALLOT |
| Most common cause of chronic valve disease of the heart. | RHEUMATIC FEVER |
| Atheroma formations composed of intracellular and extracellular lipids, muscle, and connective tissue. | ATHEROSCLEROSIS |
| Heart attack caused by acute thrombus of coronary arteries, primarily affecting left ventricle. | MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION |
| Heart compression from fluid accumulation in pericardial sac. | CARDIAC TAMPONADE |
| Localized “ballooning” or outpouching of a vessel wall. | ANEURYSM |
| Posterior pituitary gland secretes insufficient levels of ADH. | DIABETES INSIPIDUS |
| Syndrome associated with chronic hyperglycemia. | DIABETES MELLITUS |
| Primary β-cell defect / loss of pancreatic insulin production (autoimmune). | TYPE I DIABETES |
| Increasing insulin resistance (most common, linked to obesity). | TYPE II DIABETES |
| Pancreatogenic diabetes (from chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, etc.). | TYPE 3c DIABETES |
| Hyperglycemia during pregnancy without prior history. | GESTATIONAL DIABETES |
| Single-gene mutations causing defects in insulin production. | MATURITY ONSET DIABETES OF THE YOUNG (MODY) |
| Type 1 diabetes developing in adults. | LATENT AUTOIMMUNE DIABETES OF ADULTS/TYPE 1.5 (LADA) |
| Oversecretion of Growth Hormone (GH) before puberty. | GIGANTISM |
| Undersecretion of Growth Hormone (GH) before puberty. | DWARFISM |
| Oversecretion of thyroid hormone. | HYPERTHYROIDISM |
| Deficiency of thyroid hormone. | HYPOTHYROIDISM |
| Congenital form of hypothyroidism | CRETINISM |
| Caused by extreme deficiency of thyroid secretion. | MYXEDEMA |
| Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids from anterior pituitary | CUSHING SYNDROME |
| Rare disease of primary adrenal insufficiency. | ADDISON DISEASE |
| Excess prolactin causes breasts to produce milk spontaneously. | GALACTORRHEA |
| Excessive output of adrenal androgens leading to development of masculine traits in females. | VIRILISM |
| Condition wherein kidney does not form in normal manner. | RENAL AGENESIS |
| Presence of a third, small, rudimentary kidney. | SUPERNUMERARY KIDNEY |
| Lower poles of kidneys are joined across midline by a band of soft tissue. | HORSESHOE KIDNEY |
| One kidney lies across midline and is fused with other kidney | CROSS FUSED RENAL ECTOPY |
| Cystlike dilatation of ureter near opening into bladder. | URETEROCELE |
| Bacterial infection of calyces and renal pelvis | PYELONEPHRITIS |
| Excessive accumulation of CSF within ventricles. | HYDROCEPHALUS |
| Degeneration of myelin sheath covering nervous tissue of spinal cord and white matter. | MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS |
| Inflammation of meningeal coverings of brain and spinal cord (bacterial types: Meningococcal, Streptococcal, Pneumococcal). | MENINGITIS |
| Infection of brain tissue. Types: Primary and Secondary. | ENCEPHALITIS |
| Encapsulated accumulation of pus within cranium. | BRAIN ABSCESS |
| Central gelatinous portion of intervertebral disk forced through weakened disk part, causing back pain and nerve root irritation. | HERNIATED NUCLEUS PULPOSUS (HNP) |
| Classified as Ischemic Stroke or Hemorrhagic Stroke. | CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA/STROKE) |
| Classified according to site (lobe) or histologic composition (imaged via MRI and CT). | PRIMARY BRAIN TUMORS |
| Paired uterine horns extend into fallopian tubes. | BICORNUATE UTERUS |
| Uterine cavity is elongated with a single fallopian tube emerging | UNICORNUATE UTERUS |
| Complete duplication of uterus, cervix, and vagina. | UTERUS DIDELPHYS |
| Endometrial tissue/glands outside uterus (referred to as “chocolate cysts”). | ENDOMETRIOSIS |
| Malignancy of female reproductive system caused by abnormal growth of epithelial cells around uterine neck (detected early via Pap test). | CERVICAL CARCINOMA |
| Benign solid masses developing from overgrowth of uterine smooth muscle tissue. | LEIOMYOMAS (UTERINE LEIOMYOMAS) |
| Development of embryo outside uterine cavity. | ECTOPIC PREGNANCY |
| Enlarged ovaries containing multiple small cysts. | POLYCYSTIC OVARIES |
| Masses arising from unfertilized ovum undergoing neoplastic change. | DERMOID CYSTS |
| Result from weakening of supporting ligaments and pelvic musculature. | UTERINE PROLAPSE |
| Excess of amniotic fluid. | POLYHYDRAMNIOS |
| Benign enlargement of prostate gland. | PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA |
| Testicle twists on itself, inducing severe pain and swelling. | TESTICULAR TORSION |
| Collection of fluid in testis or along spermatic cord. | HYDROCELE |
| Proliferation of breast tissue in male patient. | GYNECOMASTIA |
| Congenital anomaly where urethra opens on ventral surface of penis. | HYPOSPADIAS |
| Testes do not descend into scrotum. | CRYPTORCHIDISM |
| Knot of widening varicose veins in one side of scrotum. | VARICOCELE |
| Narrowing of foreskin opening so it cannot be retracted over glans penis. | PHIMOSIS |
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