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Bio II Test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| lysosome | contains digestive enzymes to break food and digests old organelles, low pH, accepts vesicles from golgi |
| 2 processes of lysosomes | phagocytosis and autophagy |
| phagocytosis | Cell Eating engulf from environment and bring into the cell |
| autophagy | Self-Eating break down of self organelles and macromolecule |
| vacuoles | storage- food, contractile, central |
| food vacuoles | store from phagocytosis |
| contractile vacuoles | pump excess water out- unicellular |
| central vacuoles | plants, storage of ions and water |
| mitochondria | produce ATP= energy cristae and matrix |
| cristae | inner folds, increase surface area, maxes ATP production |
| matrix | inner space enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes |
| cytoskeleton | network of fibers that provides structure and support |
| first role of cytoskeleton | mechanical support for shape |
| second role of cytoskeleton | anchor organelles in place and enzymes |
| third role of cytoskeleton | cell movement |
| fourth role of cytoskeleton | cell motility- cytoskeleton and motor protein making molecules into cell |
| microtubules | hollow tubes, tubulin, maintain cell shape- cilia and flagella, chromosome segregation during meiosis and mitosis |
| microfilaments (actin) | 2 strands wrapped together, actin, cell shape, muscle contraction, cell movement by pseudopodia |
| intermediate filaments | coiled cables, cell shape, anchorage point for nucleus, make up nuclear lamina |
| extracellular matrix (ECM) | made of glycoproteins, structure of proteins on the cell membrane that interact with the ECM regulate cell to cell movements respond to mechanical stress |
| glycoproteins | protein with sugars |
| cell junctions | link epithelial cells together |
| epithelial cells | line our organs and skin |
| first type of cell junction | tight junctions |
| tight junctions | keep neighboring cells together and prevent leaking of extracellular fluid |
| desmosomes | fasten cells together to form sheets |
| gap junctions | link cells to cytoplasm, send molecules through |
| membrane fluidity | liquid-like consistency proteins and lipids move around side to side can't flip |
| luidity controlled by fatty acids | change melting temp by varying FA |
| first role of phospholipids | length of the tails long- increased melting temp short- decreased melting temp |
| second role of phospholipids | saturation more saturated (no double bond)- higher melting temp less saturated (double bond)- lower melting temp |
| third role of phospholipids | amount of cholesterol higher cholesterol- higher melting temp lower cholesterol- lower melting temp |
| membranes of an animal that lived at very low temperatures... | short fatty acid tails less saturation (double bonds) more cholestrol (blocks solidification) |
| different types of membrane proteins | peripheral, integral |
| peripheral proteins | loosely attached, only interacting with hydrophilic head on one side of the membrane |
| integral proteins | tightly attached, interact with hydrophobic tails, often transmembrane |
| transmembrane | all the way through the membrane, cytoplasmic side, extracellular side |
| functions of membrane proteins | transport, enzyme, signal transduction, cell to cell recognition, intercellular joining, attach cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix |
| 1st function of mem. proteins | transport in and out of cell |
| 2nd function of mem. proteins | enzyme |
| 3rd function of mem. proteins | signal transduction- receptors, recieve signals |
| 4th function of mem. proteins | cell to cell recognition |
| 5th function of mem. proteins | intercellular joining- tight junction cells |
| 6th function of mem. proteins | attach cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix |
| membrane carbohydrates | glycoproteins and glycolipids |
| glycoproteins | protein with sugar attached |
| glycolipids | lipids with sugar attached |
| sidedness of membranes | outside layer is different than inside |
| endomembrane system | generates sidedness, within the golgi, vesicles, and ER |
| ER | lipids and proteins that go on the outside of the cell |
| membrane permeability | selective permeability, some molecules freely pass while some can't pass without a transport protein |
| freely pass membrane: | hormones, small non-polar molecules |
| can't pass membrane without transport protein: | glucose(polar) and ions (charged)- K and Na |
| types of transport | passive and active |
| passive transport | molecules move down concentration gradient, high to low, no energy is required |
| three types of passive transport | diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion |
| diffusion | move through membrane freely without protein |
| osmosis | movement of water across membrane freely, high solute to low solute, high water to low water concentration |
| hypotonic solution | solute concentration outside cell is lower than the solute conc. in the water, so water moves into cell, which makes it burst |
| hypertonic solution | solute concentration on the outside of the cell is greater than on the inside, making the water move out of the cell, shrivels the cell. |
| isotonic solution | solute concentration outside cell= solute concentration inside cell, water flows in and out of the cell at same rate- no change |
| facilitated diffusion | movement of molecules down gradient by a protein |
| types of protein | channels- unlimited rate- open or closed carrier- limited rate- change shape to move across membrane |
| active transport | move molecules against gradient, low to high, requires energy |
| 2 ways of using energy | primary active transport- use ATP secondary active transport- couple active transport to passive transport of a different molecule |
| Na/K Pump | Na conc- high outside, low inside K conc- low outside, high inside |
| 1st step to Na/K pump | 3 Na bind to pump from inside the cell |
| 2nd step to Na/K pump | use ATP to add a phosphate to pump |
| 3rd step to Na/K pump | pump flips to outside, release 3 Na |
| 4th step to Na/K pump | 2K binds to pump from outside the cell, phosphate leaves |
| 5th step to Na/K pump | pump flips back inside cell and release 2K inside |
| electrochemical gradient | charge difference and concentration difference of a molecule |
| 2 types of bulk transport | exocytosis and endocytosis- vesicles to fuse to membrane |
| exocytosis | secrete/release molecules from inside cell to outside cell |
| endocytosis | bring large molecules into the cell |
| 3 types of endocytosis | phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis |
| phagocytosis | cell eating, molecules to lysosome |
| pinocytosis | cell drinking- bring in |
| receptor mediated endocytosis | receptors that bind specific molecules and bring into cells, form clatherin coated pits |
| metabolism | all the chemical reactions inside of a cell |
| metabolic pathways | a-b-c-d, reaction to product reactant to product reactant, to final product |
| enzymes | catalyze one reaction |
| different pathways | catabolic and anabolic |
| catabolic | breakdown of large molecules, release energy- exergonic, spontaneous |
| anabolic | builds large molecules, requires energy input- endergonic, non spontaneous |
| energy | capacity to do work |
| kinetic energy | energy of motion |
| thermal energy | random movement of molecules |
| potential energy | energy based on position or state |
| chemical energy | can be released in a chemical reaction |
| thermodynamics | study of energy conversions |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | energy can be transferred or transformed, but not created or destroyed |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | every energy transfer increase entropy of the universe |
| entropy | disorder |
| spontaneous chemical reaction | energetically favorable, no energy required, breaks down polymer into monomers, catabolic |
| non-spontaneous chemical reaction | energetically unfavorable, energy required, anabolic reaction |
| free energy | energy available in a system to do work |
| delta | change |
| G | gibbs free energy change |
| H | change in enthalpy (total energy) |
| T | temperature in Kelvin |
| S | change in entropy (disorder) |
| negative G | spontaneous |
| positive G | non-spontaneous |
| equilibrium | state of maximum stability |
| spontaneous | moving towards equilibrium |
| non-spontaneous | moving away from equilibrium |
| exergonic reaction | release energy or heat, thermodynamically spontaneous, products have less free energy than reactants |
| endergonic reaction | require energy, thermodynamically nonspontaneous, products have more free energy than reactants |
| by using the product as the reactant | equilibrium is never reached |
| cellular work | chemical, transport, mechanical, energy coupling |
| chemical work | anabolic reactions |
| transport work | establishing a concentration gradient/active transport |
| mechanical work | movement- muscle contraction |
| ATP | energy currency |
| energy coupling | breakdown of food is used to make ATP |
| activation energy | initial energy input to start a reaction |
| enzyme specificity | 1 enzyme= 1 reaction recognizes a specific substrate form a complex with substrate |
| active site | substrate binds to enzymes active site where the reaction occurs |
| 2 models for binding | lock and key and induced fit |
| induced fit model | enzyme changes shape to bind substrate |
| 1st step of enzyme catalysis | substrate binds active site |
| 2nd step of enzyme catalysis | hold substrates by weak interactions |
| 3rd step of enzyme catalysis | substrates converted to products |
| 4th step of enzyme catalysis | release the products |
| 5th step of enzyme catalysis | enzyme is regenerated |
| enzymes often require... | cofactors- vitamins and metal ions |
| cofactor | non amino acid component required for catalysis |
| local conditions | impact enzyme function |
| temperature | high temperature denatures proteins |
| pH | low pH can activate or inhibit |
| enzyme inhibitors | competitive and non competitive |
| competitive inhibitors | looks like substrate, blocks activity by preventing substrate from binding, binds active site, overcome inhibition by increasing substrate concentration |
| noncompetitive inhibitors | bind outside of active site, change shape of enzyme so sub. can't bind, active site no longer works, can't be overcome by increased substrate concentration |
| three ways to control enzymatic activity | gene expression, allosteric regulation, and enzyme/substrate localization |
| gene expression | when and how much of enzyme we make |
| allosteric regulation | a molecule binding to enzyme outside of the active site change activity (increase/decrease) |
| allosteric enzyme 1 | have multiple active sites |
| allosteric enzyme 2 | bind substrates cooperatively= when 1 substrate binds, other enzyme subunits bind sub. more easily |
| allosteric enzyme 3 | contain regulatory sites, bound by activators or inhibitors |
| allosteric enzyme 4 | active/inactive states |
| enzyme localization | control interaction of the E and S |
| oxidation | catabolism of organic molecules |
| redox reaction | reduction oxidation |
| reduction | gain electrons, become more negative |
| oxidation | loss of electrons |
| reducing agent | lose/donate electrons- oxidized |
| oxidizing agent | accept electron- reduced |
| electronegativity | strength of an atoms hold on electrons |
| O | is highly electronegative, pull e towards itself |
| C and H | low electronegativity- equally share e |
| oxidation of glucose | 6 Glucose + 6 Oxygen --- 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + Energy |
| More C-H bonds | more reduced, more released |
| fatty acids have more energy than... | sugars |
| oxidize fuel in a step wise manner | use electron transport chain to pass electron from C-- O2 |
| the O2 in oxidizing fuel... | accepts electron to become H2O |
| dehydrogenase enzymes | carry out redox reactions to harvest electrons use electron carriers to take electrons from fuel |
| Carriers | NAD--- NADH FAD--- FADH2 |
| 4 stages of cellular respiration | glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation |
| glycolysis | break one C6H12O6 into 2 pyruvate (3c) |
| pyruvate oxidation | converts each pyruvate in acetyl CoA (2c) |
| citric acid cycle | complete breakdown- C are released as CO2 |
| oxidative phosphorylation | use electrons to make ATP- they account for 90 percent of ATP |
| 2 ways of generating ATP | substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation |
| substrate level phosphorylation | occurs in glycolysis and CAC- 10 percent of ATP phosphate group from a substrate gets transferred to ADP-ATP |
| oxidative phosphorylation | use ETC and ATP synthase to add Pi(phosphate) to ADP- ATP 90 percent of ATP |
| glycolysis | only step that occurs in cytoplasm |
| 2 stages of glycolysis | energy investment and payoff |
| energy investment | use 2 ATP to phosphorylate glucose |
| energy payoff | generate 4 ATP by substrate level P |
| glycolysis final net gain is | 2 ATP + 2 NADH |
| glycolysis reaction and products | 1 glucose + 2 ATP + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + NAD---- 2 pyruvate (C3H3O3)+ 4 ATP + 2 NADH |
| pyruvate oxidation | in mitochondria |
| pyruvate oxidation final net gain | 2 NADH |
| pyruvate oxidation reaction and products | per glucose: 2 pyruvate (3c) + 2 CoA + 2 NAD ----- 2 acetyl CoA (2c) + 2 CO2 + 2 NADH |
| citric acid cycle | in mitochondria |
| citric acid cycle final net gain | 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP |
| citric acid cycle reaction and products | 2 acetyl CoA + 2 H20 + 2 GDP + 2 Pi + 6 NAD + 2 FAD---- 2 CoA + 4 CO2 + 2 GTP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 |
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