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Exam 2
Microbioloy Chp 5,6,7, 8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| MICROBIAL GENETICS — PART 1 1. Q: What is DNA? | A: DNA is the molecule that stores genetic information. |
| 2. Q: What is a genome? | A: The "complete set of all genetic material" in an organism. |
| 3. Q: What was the Human Genome Project? | A: A project that determined the sequence of human DNA and helped scientists understand human genes and genetic variation. |
| 4. Q: Why is the Human Genome Project important? | A: It improved our understanding of human genetics, disease, and inherited traits. |
| 5. Q: What is a chromosome? | A: A structure made of DNA and associated proteins that contains genetic information. |
| 6. Q: How does "bacterial DNA fit inside a cell"? | A: Bacterial DNA is" highly folded and compacted "in the nucleoid region. |
| 7. Q: How does "eukaryotic DNA fit inside a cell"? | A: Eukaryotic DNA is "tightly coiled around proteins "and organized into chromosomes "inside the nucleus". |
| 8. Q: What is a plasmid? | A: A" small", usually" circular piece of DNA" that can "replicate independently "of the bacterial chromosome. |
| 9. Q: What is a gene? | A: A 'segment of DNA" that contains information used to produce a functional product, such as a protein. |
| 10. Q: Where is" genetic information" located in" prokaryotic cells"? | A: Primarily in the bacterial chromosome in the nucloid/cytoplasm, with additional genes sometimes found on plasmids. |
| 11. Q: Where is" genetic information "located in "eukaryotic cells"? | A: Primarily in chromosomes "inside the nucleus". |
| 12. Q: What is the Central Dogma of molecular biology? | A: DNA → RNA → protein. |
| 13. Q: What is DNA" replication"? | A: The process of copying DNA so genetic information can be passed to new cells |
| 14. Q: What is the "goal" of DNA replication? | A: To produce an accurate copy of the DNA before cell division |
| 15. Q: What "enzyme unwind & separates " the DNA strands during replication? | A: Helicase. |
| 16. Q: What" enzyme adds new DNA "nucleotides"? | A: DNA polymerase. |
| 17. Q: Where does bacterial DNA replication "begin"? | A: At a specific origin of replication on the bacterial chromosome |
| 18. Q: What is "transcription"? making | A: The process of making "RNA from a DNA template". |
| 19. Q: What "enzyme performs "transcription? | A: RNA polymerase |
| 20. Q: What is "Translation"? using | A: The process of using "mRNA information to build a protein" |
| 21. Q: Where does Translation occur? | A: At ribosomes |
| 22. Q: What is mRNA? | A: Messenger RNA that carries genetic instructions from DNA to a ribosome. |
| 23. Q: What is tRNA? | A: Transfer RNA that brings specific amino acids to the ribosome. |
| 24. Q: What is a ribosome? | A: The cellular structure where proteins are assembled during translation. |
| 25. Q: What is a codon? | A: A" three-nucleotide sequence" on mRNA that specifies an amino acid or a stop signal. |
| 26. Q: Where do "Transcription and Translation occur" in "PROKARYOTES"? | A: Both occur in the cytoplasm because prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. |
| 27. Q: Where does "Transcription" occur in EUKARYOTES? | A: In the "nucleus" |
| 28. Q: Where does "Translation " occur in EUKARYOTES? | A: At "ribosomes "in the "cytoplasm" or associated with the rough ER |
| 29. Q: How can antibiotics affect Transcription? | A: Some antibiotics interfere with bacterial RNA polymerase and prevent RNA production. |
| 30. Q: How can antibiotics affect Translation? | A: Some antibiotics interfere with bacterial ribosomes and prevent protein synthesis |
| 31. Q: What is the first step in using a DNA sequence to determine a protein? | A: Transcribe the DNA sequence into mRNA. |
| 32. Q: What is the next step after transcription? | A: Translate the mRNA codons into an amino-acid sequence |
| MICROBIAL GENETICS — PART 2 33. Q: What is a mutation? | A: A change in the DNA sequence. |
| 34. Q: Where can mutations occur? | A: Mutations can occur in DNA, including genes or other regions of the genome. |
| 35. Q: What can cause mutations? | A: "DNA-copying errors", "radiation, chemicals", and other environmental factors can cause mutations |
| 36. Q: What are the three mutation types ? | A: Silent (neutral) mutation, Missense mutation, Nonsense mutation |
| 37. Q: How can mutations affect humans? | A: They can have harmful, beneficial, or neutral effects and may contribute to genetic disease. |
| 38. Q: How can mutations affect bacteria? | A: They can change bacterial traits, including traits that may affect survival or antibiotic resistance. |
| 39. Q: What is "Vertical "gene transfer? | A: Genes are passed vertically from an" parent cell to its offspring". ex: Bacteria, plants, animal, human |
| 40. Q: What is "Horizontal" gene transfer? | A: Genes can be passed laterally to other microbes of the "same generation" |
| 41. Q: What are two mobile genetic elements discussed in the guide? | A: Plasmids and transposons. |
| 42. Q: What are common characteristics of plasmids? | A: They are usually small, circular DNA molecules that replicate independently and may carry useful genes |
| 43. Q: What types of genes can plasmids carry? | A: They can carry genes that provide advantages such as antibiotic resistance. |
| 44. Q: What is a transposon (jumping genes)? | A: A mobile DNA element that can jump or move around from one location in DNA to another. |
| 45. Q: What is transformation? | A: A horizontal gene transfer uptake of “naked”, foreign DNA directly from the surrounding environment. |
| 46. Q: What is a competent bacterium? | A: A bacterium capable of taking up DNA from its environment. |
| 47. Q: What did Griffith's experiment demonstrate? | A: It provided evidence that genetic information could be transferred between bacteria and change bacterial characteristics. |
| 48. Q: What is conjugation? | A: A horizontal gene transfer in which DNA is transferred directly between bacterial cells, commonly through a sex pilus |
| 49. Q: What is transduction? | A: A horizontal gene transfer in which bacteriophages virus transfer bacterial DNA between cells. |
| 50. Q: What are the three types of horizontal gene transfer? | A: Transformation, conjugation, and transduction. |
| MICROBIAL METABOLISM & GROWTH 51. Q: What is metabolism? | A: The buildup & breakdown of nutrients within a cell |
| 52. Q: What is an active cell? | A: A cell carrying out metabolic activities and cellular functions. |
| 53. Q: What is dormancy? | A: A state of greatly reduced metabolic activity. |
| 54. Q: How are endospores related to dormancy? | A: Endospores are highly resistant dormant structures that allow some bacteria to survive unfavorable conditions. |
| 55. Q: Why are dormant cells important when using antibiotics? | A: Antibiotics that target active cellular processes may be less effective against dormant cells. |
| 56. Q: What is an enzyme? | A: A" biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions" without being consumed. |
| 57. Q: What is the "active site"? | A: The" region" of an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs. |
| 58. Q: What is an "enzyme-substrate complex"? | A: The "temporary association" formed when a substrate binds to an enzyme's active site. |
| 59. Q: How can a mutation affect an enzyme? | A: A mutation can change the enzyme's amino-acid sequence and alter its shape or function. |
| 60. Q: What is "competitive" inhibition? | A: An inhibitor "competes" with the substrate for the enzyme's active site. ex: antibiotics |
| 61. Q: What is "noncompetitive" inhibition? | A: An inhibitor binds at the allosteric site and changes the enzyme's shape, reducing its activity. Changes it enzymes shape. binds to allosteric sites |
| 62. Q: What is PABA? | A: Para-aminobenzoic acid, a molecule bacteria use to make folic acid. |
| 63. Q: Why is PABA important to bacteria? | A: Bacteria use PABA in a pathway needed to produce folic acid. |
| 64. Q: How does sulfanilamide work? | A: It resembles PABA competes and interferes with bacterial folic-acid production. |
| 65. Q: What is ATP? | A: Adenosine triphosphate, the cell's main readily usable energy-carrying molecule. |
| 66. Q: What is "catabolism"? | A: The "breakdown "of molecules to release energy. |
| 67. Q: What is "anabolism"? | A: The "building of "larger molecules from smaller molecules, requiring energy. |
| 68. Q: What is cellular respiration? | A: A process that breaks down nutrients and captures energy, commonly producing ATP. |
| 69. Q: What is fermentation? | A: An anaerobic process that allows continued ATP production through glycolysis by regenerating NAD+. |
| 70. Q: What is glycolysis? | A: The pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP and NADH. |
| 71. Q: Where does "glycolysis" occur in "prokaryotes"? | A: In the cytoplasm. |
| 72. Q: Where does "glycolysis" occur in "eukaryotes"? | A: In the cytoplasm. |
| 73. Q: What is the electron transport chain? | A: A series of electron carriers that transfer electrons and help generate a proton gradient used to make ATP. |
| 74. Q: What are NADH and FADH2? | A: Electron carriers that transport high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain. |
| 75. Q: What are cytochromes? | A: Electron-transfer proteins that participate in the electron transport chain. |
| 76. Q: What is the final electron acceptor in" aerobic respiration" ? | A: Oxygen. |
| 77. Q: What is the final electron acceptor in "anaerobic respiration"? | A: An inorganic molecule other than oxygen. |
| 78. Q: Where does the "bacterial electron transport chain" occur? | A: In the "bacterial plasma membrane". |
| 79. Q: Where does the" eukaryotic electron transport chain" occur? | A: In the " inner mitochondrial membrane". |
| 80. Q: What is the purpose of fermentation? | A: To regenerate NAD+ so glycolysis can continue producing ATP. |
| 81. Q: What are common fermentation end products? | A: Lactic acid or alcohol, depending on the pathway. |
| 82. Q: How is fermentation useful? | A: It is used in producing foods and beverages and in other industrial processes. |
| 83. Q: What are probiotics? | A: Live microorganisms that can provide health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. |
| 84. Q: What is Lactobacillus? | A: A group of bacteria commonly associated with fermented foods and the human microbiome. |
| 85. Q: How can beneficial gut bacteria help humans? | A: They can contribute to digestion, nutrient production, and protection against some harmful microbes. |
| 86. Q: What other organic compounds can cells catabolize? | A: Lipids and proteins, in addition to carbohydrates. |
| 87. Q: Where do bacteria obtain organic compounds? | A: From their environment, including nutrients available in food, living hosts, or other sources. |
| PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CELL DIVISION & GROWTH 88. Q: What is photosynthesis? | A: The process of capturing light energy to make organic compounds. |
| 89. Q: What are major products of photosynthesis? | A: Organic compounds such as carbohydrates; oxygen is also produced by oxygenic photosynthesis. |
| 90. Q: Where does photosynthesis occur in eukaryotes? | A: In chloroplasts. |
| 91. Q: Where does photosynthesis occur in photosynthetic prokaryotes? | A: On specialized internal membranes associated with the plasma membrane. |
| 92. Q: What is binary fission? | A: A form of bacterial cell division in which one cell copies its DNA and divides into two daughter cells. |
| 93. Q: What is the "goal" of binary fission? | A: To reproduce the bacterial cell and produce genetically similar daughter cells. |
| 94. Q: What are the" end products" of binary fission? | A: Two daughter cells. |
| 95. Q: What is generation time? | A: The time required for a bacterial population to double. |
| 96. Q: How do you calculate generation time? | A: Generation time = total time ÷ number of generations. |
| 97. Q: What are the four major phases of bacterial growth? | A: Lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death phases. |
| 98. Q: What happens during the lag phase? | A: Cells adapt to their environment and" prepare for growth". |
| 99. Q: What happens during the log phase? | A: Cells divide rapidly and population size increases exponentially. |
| 100. Q: What happens during the stationary phase ? aka equalibrium pahse | A: Growth slows because nutrients become limited and wastes accumulate; cell division and cell death are roughly balanced. |
| 101. Q: What happens during the death phase? | A: The number of viable cells decreases. |
| 102. Q: How can bacterial population size be measured? | A: By methods such as direct counts, viable plate counts, turbidity, or other laboratory methods. |
| MICROBIAL CONTROL 103. Q: What is sterilization? | A: The destruction or removal of all forms of microbial life,including endospores. |
| 104. Q: What is disinfection? | A: The use of physical or chemical methods to destroy or inhibit many harmful microorganisms on nonliving surfaces EX: surgical tools |
| 105. Q: What is antisepsis? | A: The use of "antimicrobial chemicals "on living tissue. EX: sanisol on a lab bench |
| 106. Q: What is degerming? | A: The removal of microbes from a limited area, usually by mechanical cleansing. EX: → mouthwash / ethanol on skin / hydrogen peroxide on a wound |
| 107. Q: What is sanitization? | A: Reducing microbial numbers to levels considered safe by public-health standards. EX: restaurant tables / kitchen counters/ dishes |
| 108. Q: What are common methods of microbial control? | A: Heat, chemicals, radiation, filtration, and other physical or chemical methods. |
| 109. Q: What does boiling do to microorganisms? | A: It kills many vegetative microbial cells but may not reliably destroy endospores. |
| 110. Q: Why is autoclaving more effective than boiling? | A: Autoclaving uses pressurized steam at high temperature and is designed to destroy microorganisms, including endospores, when properly operated. |
| 111. Q: What is pasteurization? | A: A controlled heat treatment used to reduce harmful microorganisms while preserving the quality of a product. |
| 112. Q: How do microbial-control agents kill bacteria? | A: They can damage proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, or other essential cell structures and processes. |
| 113. Q: Why does structural damage cause bacterial death? | A: Damage to essential structures or functions prevents the cell from maintaining itself, reproducing, or carrying out necessary metabolism. |
| 114: Q: What is Silent (neutral) mutation? | No change in DNA base activity of the product encoded by gene. |
| 115. Q: What is Missense mutation? | A DNA base changes, causing a different amino acid to be inserted may alter protein function. |
| 116. Q:What is Nonsense mutation? | A DNA base changes, creating a stop codon too early Protein is shortened. |
| 117. Q: Do humans have operon? | A: No |
| 118. Q: 3 diefferent Transcription and Translation for operon? | A: Three different genes , three different protiens |
| 119. Q: Base codon: | A: 3 bases equals 1 codon |
| 120: Q: How many does this protien have AUG - CCA - GTT - UUU - (UAA)/STOP | A: Four or 4 protiens |
| 121. Q: Do humans have ribosomes? | A: Yes |
| 122. Do humans have a cell wall? | A: No |
| 123. Q: Do humans have plasmids? | A: No |
| 124. Q: Do humans can make folic acids? | A: No |
| 125. Q: Mutation change EX : | A: Original DNA (normal) - ATG"C"TAG MUTATION -------> Mutated DNA - ATG"A"TAG |
| 126. Q: What is a Promoter? | A: a specific region of DNA that signals RNA polymerase and associated proteins to bind and initiate transcription |
| 127. Q: What is a Terminator? | A: a specific DNA sequence that marks the end of a gene or operon and signals RNA polymerase to stop transcription and release the newly made RNA transcript. |
| 128. Q: What is anticodon? | A: three-base nucleotide unit located on the tRNA loop. |
| 129. Q: EX of anticodon? | A: Leucine (Codon 5'-CUG-3'): Pairs with the anticodon 3'-GAC-5' (or 5'-CAG-3').Valine (Codon 5'-GUG-3'): Pairs with the anticodon 3'-CAC-5' (or 5'-GUG-3').Isoleucine (Codon 5'-AUU-3'): Pairs with the anticodon 3'-UAA-5' (or 5'-AAU-3'). |
| 130. Q: Is human metabolism always on? | A: Yes |
| 131. Q: When does human metabolism shuts off? | A: When a human dies/ passes away. |
| 132. Q: Is bacteria metabolism always on? | A: No |
| 133. Q: When does bacterical metabolism shuts off? | A: When they are in critical / unfavorable conditions . Ex: Endospores |
| 134. Q: Do humans have cellular respiration? | A: No |
| 135. Q: Do humans have cytochromes? | A; Yes |
| 136. Q: Purpose of electrons ? | A; Energy |
| 137. Q: "Aerobic" bacteria: | A: "Require" Oxygen for growth & energy metabolism |
| 138. Q:" Anaerobic" bacteria | A: Grows in the "abscene" of oxygen & energy metabolism |
| 139. Q: One feature that could differ between bacteria and help us identify them in the electron transport chain. | A; Cytochrome |
| 140. Q: Binary Fission qualities | A: Asexual reproduction Offsprings are genetic clones of the parents Each daughter cells can continue the doubling process Can happen very rapidly |
| 141. Q: Could a chemical microbial control agent that targets bacteria plasma membranes affect human cells? | A: Yes; plasma membranes are found in all cells, including human cells. |
| 142. Would a bacterium have a similar generation time in the environment compared to that in laboratory media? | No. A bacterium would usually not have the same generation time in the environment as in laboratory media. |
| 143. Q: Why bacterium wouldn't have a similar generation time in the environment compared to that in laboratory media? | A: Laboratory media provides optimal nutrients and controlled conditions, so bacteria can grow faster. In the environment, nutrients and conditions may be less favorable, making generation time longer. |
| 144. Q: A patient is admitted to the hospital with a painful, red, swollen skin infection. A sample from the wound grows Staphylococcus aureus. The patient is started on a beta-lactam antibiotic (ex:methicillin) which are commonly used to treat S. aureus | A : Gene Transfer |
| 144. Q: : Which type of environment would you expect conjugation to easily occur? | A: Biofilm |
| 145. Q: Bacteriophage: | A: a virus that infects bacteria Virus acts as a delivery system |
| 146. Q: Vibrio cholerae | A: pathogenic and causes cholera Lethal diarrhea that can last few days |
| 147. Q: what you remember about DNA and RNA | A: DNA :double helix strand DNA :base pairs: A T C G DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acids) DNA: Oxygen is not present RNA: single helix strand RNA :base pairs : A U C G RNA :(Ribose Nucleic Acids) RNA: Oxygen is present |
| 148. Q: Why does eukaryotic DNA need to be condensed and packaged into chromosomes instead of remaining loose inside the nucleus? | A: DNA is packaged into chromosomes so it can fit, stay organized, and be properly separated during cell division. |
| 149. Q: In order for more cells to be produced, cells must divide. Before division can occur, what must happen to the DNA replication? ting ice cream. The doctor suspects the patient may be lactose intolerant. | A; DNA must be replicated (copied) before the cell divides. |
| 150. Q: A 22-year-old patient visits the doctor complaining of: bloating , stomach cramps , gas and diarrhea The symptoms occur about 30 minutes after drinking milk or ea What sugar molecule in milk causes the problem? | A: Lactose |
| 151. Q: A 22-year-old patient visits the doctor complaining of: bloating , stomach cramps , gas and diarrhea The symptoms occur about 30 minutes after drinking milk or eating ice cream. What enzyme breaks it down? | A: Lactase |
| 152. Q: A 22-year-old patient visits the doctor complaining of: bloating , stomach cramps , gas and diarrhea The symptoms occur about 30 minutes after drinking milk or eating ice cream. Where do the instructions for making that enzyme come from? | A: DNA genes |
| 153. Q: A 22-year-old patient visits the doctor complaining of: bloating , stomach cramps , gas and diarrhea The symptoms occur about 30 minutes after drinking milk or eating ice cream. What process is used to make the enzyme from the gene? | A: Transcription |
| 154. Q: Why is having the overall shape and structural differences between human & bacteria RNA polymerase important to us? | The structural differences are important because they allow antibiotics to target bacterial RNA polymerase without significantly affecting human RNA polymerase. |
| 155. Q: In bacteria, some" genes are grouped together in structures" called | A: Operon |
| 156. Q: Ribosomes (side note: targets for antibiotics) | A:they make proteins and can be targets for some antibiotics. |
| 156.8 Q: Case study Q's Transcribe the DNA sequence. TAC GAA TTT ACT | A: mRNA: AUG CUU AAA UGA |
| 159. Q: Case study Q's Translate the mRNA sequence. | A:Methionine – Leucine – Lysine – STOP Met – Leu – Lys – STOP |
| 160.Q: Case study Q's What occurs cellular structure is responsible for translation ? | A: Ribosomes |
| 161. Q: Case study Q's Why would blocking transcription or translation be harmful to the bacterial cell? | A: Prevents proteins from survival & growth. |
| 162. Q: Why can some antibiotics target bacterial transcription or translation without severely harming human cells? | A: Different structures |
| 163. Q: Human can undergo fermentation? | A: Yes |
| 164. Q: Do Humans have plasma membrane? | A: Yes |
| 165. Q: Would E. coli be considered pathogenic without these plasmids? | A: Yes. Some strains of E. coli are pathogenic because their plasmids carry genes for virulence factors that can cause disease. |
Created by:
Rodney C