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Skeletal
A&P 2 Test 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Skeletal Cartilages, blood vessels or nerves? How does nutrient delivery happen? | Contain no blood vessels or nerves Dense connective Tissue girdle of perichondrium contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage. |
| Kinds of Cartilage | Hyaline Elastic Fibrocartilage |
| Hyaline Cartilage | Provide support, flexibility, and resilience, most common type |
| Elastic Cartilage | Similar to Hyaline but contains elastic fibers. Some compressibility and as such can absorb pressure |
| Fibrocartilage | Collagen fibers, great tensile strength |
| Growth of cartilage, 2 types | Appositional and interstitial |
| Appositional Cell Growth | Cells secrete matrix against external surface of existing cartilage |
| Interstitial Cell Growth | Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding from within. |
| Calcification of cartilage occurs during | Normal bone growth and old age. |
| Two main groups of bones of the skeleton | Axial and Appendicular Skeletons |
| Axial Skeleton | skull, ribcage, and spine |
| Appendicular Skeleton | Appendages basically, anything that moves connected to the main spine of the body. |
| Classifications of Bones by Shape | Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones |
| Long bones | Longer in length than width |
| Short bones | Cube-shaped bones (wrist and ankle) Sesamoid bones (within tendons, patella) |
| Flat bones | Thin, flat, and slightly curved. |
| Irregular bones | Complicated shapes |
| Functions of bones | Support, Protection, Movement, Storage, Blood Cell Formation, Triglyceride storage. |
| Functions of bones: Support | For the body and organs |
| Functions of bones: Protection | For the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs |
| Functions of bones: Movement | Levers for muscle action |
| Functions of bones: Storage | Minerals (Calcium and phosphorus) and growth factors |
| Functions of bones: Blood Cell Formation (hematopoiesis) | in marrow cavities |
| Triglyceride (energy) | storage in the bone cavities |
| Bone markings. Bulges, depressions, and holes serve as: | sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Joint surfaces Conduits for blood vessels and nerves |
| Bone textures, two types | Compact and Spongy (Cancellous) bone |
| Compact bone | Dense outer layer |
| Spongy (Cancellous) Bone | Honeycomb of trabeculae |
| Structure of a long bone: Epiphyses | Expanded ends spongy bone interior epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate) Articular (Hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces |
| Structure of a long bone:Diaphysis | Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow) marrow |
| Membranes of Bone | Periosteum Endosteum |
| Periosteum | Outer fibrous layer Inner Osteogenic layer-contains osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and osteogenic cells. Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via the nutrient foramina. |
| Osteoblasts | bone-forming cells |
| Osteoclasts | bone destroying cells |
| Osteogenic cells | Stem cells, become osteoblasts |
| How do nutrients enter the bone? | Through the nutrient foramina, via blood vessels. |
| How is the periosteum connected to the underlying bone? | Sharpey's fibers |
| Periosteum and endosteum difference | Periosteum forms the outer surface of bone, while the endosteum lines the medullary cavity. |
| Endosteum | Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
| Structure of short, irregular, and flat bones | Periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside Endosteum-covered spongy bone within Spongy bone called diploe in flat bones Bone marrow between the trabecule |
| What is diploe and where is it found? | Found in flat bones, a kind of spongy bone. |
| Microscopic anatomy of spongy bone: Trabeculae | Align along lines of stress No osteons Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients |
| Spongy bone is composed of what that contain what? What fills in some of the bones? | Trabeculae, osteocytes, red marrow fills in some of the bones |
| Chemical composition of bone: Organic | Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts Osteoid-organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins collagen fibers-provide tensile strength and flexibility |
| Chemical Composition of a bone: Inorganic | Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) 65% of bone mass Mainly calcium phosphate crystals Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression |
| Location of hemopoietic tissue (red marrow) | Red marrow cavities in adults Red marrow cavities in infants |
| Red marrow cavities in adults | Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus Trabecular cavities of the diploe of flat bones |
| Red marrow cavities in infants | medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone |
| osteogenic (osteoprogenitor, stem cells) cells | stem blasts in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts |
| Osteoblasts | bone-forming cells |
| osteocytes | mature bone cells |
| osteoclasts | cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix |
| osteogenic cells are _____ and develop into ______? | undifferentiated, osteoblasts |
| When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, their structure and function changes, and they become _________. | osteocytes |
| Osteoclasts develop from ________ and _______ and differ in appearance from other bone cells | monocytes and macrophages |
| Microscopic anatomy of Compact Bone | Haversian system, or osteon-structural unit. Lamellae Central (Haversian) canal Perforated (Volkmann's) canals Lacunae Canaliculi |
| Lamellae of compact bone | weight-bearing Column-like matrix tubes |
| Central (Haversian) canals of compact bone | Contain blood vessels and nerves |
| Perforating (Volkmann's) canals of compact bone | at right angles to the central canal. Connects blood vessels and nerves to the periosteum and central canal |
| Lacunae of compact bone | small cavities that contain osteocytes |
| Canaliculi of compact bone | hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal |
| Osteogenesis (Ossification) | bone tissue formation |
| Stages of bone development | Bone formation Postnatal bone growth Bone modeling and repair |
| Bone formation (when they start) | begins in 2nd month of development |
| Postnatal bone growth (when they stop) | until early adulthood |
| bone modeling and repair (When they start and stop) | lifelong |
| Two Types of Ossification | Intramembranous and Endochondral ossification |
| Intramembranous ossification, develops from what, forms what? | membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane. Forms flat bones, like clavicles and cranial bones. |
| In-depth Intramembranous ossification, 4 steps. | Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, ossification centers form. Secreted Osteoid traps osteoblasts, which become osteocytes Trabecular Matrix and periosteum form Compact bone develops on trabecular bone, crowded blood vessels condense into bone marrow |
| In-depth Endochondral ossification, first 3 of 6 steps | Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. The cartilage model of the future bony skeleton and the perichondrium form. Capillaries penetrate cartilage. Perichondrium becomes periosteum. Periosteal collar and primary ossification center develop |
| In-depth Endochondral ossification, last 3 of 6 steps | Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of bone. Secondary ossification centers develop. Cartilage remains at epiphyseal growth plate, and at joint surface as articular cartilage. |
| Postnatal bone growth | Interstitial growth-length of long bones Appositional growth-thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surface. |
| Explain progression of epiphyseal plate into epiphyseal line. | As bones mature, their epiphyseal plate progresses to an epiphyseal line, no longer needing growth. epiphyseal lines are visible in the growing bone. They are remnants of epiphyseal plates in a mature bone. |
| Growth of length in long bones into 4 functional zones | Proliferation (growth) Hypertrophic Calcification Ossification (osteogenic) |
| What is responsible for long bone longitudinal growth? | epiphyseal plates |
| hypertrophy | bones growing faster than they can remodel, especially in legs and arms |
| Difference between ossification and calcification | Calcification is the deposition of calcium salts in tissues, often in soft tissues, while ossification is the formation of bone tissue a regulated process involving calcium and collagen. |
| Hormonal Regulation of bone growth, 3 main kinds | Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity Thyroid modulates activity of growth hormone Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty) |
| How do testosterone and estrogen start and stop bone growth? | promotes adolescent growth spurts Ends growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure. |
| Bone deposits occur where? What does this require? | where bone is injured or added strength is needed. This requires a diet rich in proteins, vitamins C, D, and A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese. |
| What are sites of new matrix revealed by in bone deposits? | The osteoid seam-unmineralized band of matrix Calcification front-The abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone. |
| Bone Resorption | Osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix) Acids convert calcium salts into soluble forms Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood. |
| Control of Remodeling. What controls continual remodeling of bone? | Hormonal Mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood Mechanical and gravitational pull. |
| Hormonal control of Blood Calcium: Calcium is necessary for: | Transmission of nerve impulses Muscle contraction Blood coagulation Secretion by glands and nerve cells Cell division |
| Calcium in the blood is primarily controlled by what? | PTH, Parathyroid Hormone. |
| If blood calcium goes down, what happens then to right it? | Parathyroid glands release PTH, osteoclasts release Ca2+ from the bone, calcium is reabsorbed from urine in the kidneys, calcium reabsorption in the small intestine increases via Vitamin D synthesis Lastly, Ca2+ levels in blood increases. |
| If blood calcium goes up, what happens then to right it? | Thyroid gland releases calcitonin, osteoclast activity is inhibited, Ca2+ reabsorption in the kidneys decreases, Ca2+ level in blood decreases. |
| What has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts? | Leptin |
| What does the body do with excess calcium from the blood? Explain the steps | This may be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin. Parafollicular cells of the thyroid release calcitonin, causing osteoblasts to deposit calcium salts, bringing down blood calcium levels. |
| Wolff's Law | A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it. |
| What are some observations supporting Wolff's Law? | Handedness results in bone of one upper limb being stronger and thicker. Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle. Trabeculae form along lines of stress Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach. |
| Classifications of bone fractures: Position of bone ends after fracture | Nondisplaced-ends retain normal position Displaced-ends don't retain normal position |
| Nondisplaced bone fractures | ends retain normal position |
| Displaced bone fractures | ends don't retain normal position |
| Classifications of bone fractures: Completeness of the break | Complete-broken all the way through Incomplete-not broken all the way through |
| Complete bone fractures | broken all the way through |
| Incomplete bone fractures | not broken all the way through |
| Classifications of bone fractures: Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone | Linear-Parallel to the long axis of the bone Transverse-Perpendicular to the long axis of the bone |
| Linear bone fractures | Parallel to the long axis of the bone |
| Transverse bone fractures | Perpendicular to the long axis of the bone |
| Classifications of bone fractures: Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin. | Compound(open)-bone ends penetrate the skin Simple(closed)-bone ends do not penetrate the skin |
| Compound bone fractures | open, bone ends penetrate skin |
| Simple bone fractures | closed, bone ends do not penetrate skin |
| All fractures can be described in terms of: | Location, external appearance, and nature of the break |
| Spiral breaks | As the name sounds |
| comminuted breaks | basically, the broken area is in many pieces |
| Impacted breaks | long bones get shunted into themselves from both ends |
| green stick break | not all the way through, cracked, like cracking a green stick of wood |
| Oblique break | anything at an angle pretty much |
| 4 stages in the healing of a bone fracture: Stage 1 | A hematoma forms -torn blood vessels hemorrhage -clot (hematoma) forms Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed |
| 4 Stages in the healing of a bone fracture: Stage 2 | Fibrocartilaginous Callus Forms -Phagocytic cells clear debris -Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone within 1 week -fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends -mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus |
| 4 stages in the healing of a bone fracture: Stage 3 | Bony Callus Formation -New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus -bony callus formation continues until union is formed in 2 months |
| 4 stages in the healing of a bone fracture: Stage 4 | Bone Remodeling -In response to mechanical stressors over several months -final structure resembles original |
| Homeostatic imbalances: Osteomalacia and Rickets | Calcium salts not deposited rickets(childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities cause:vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium |
| Homeostatic Imbalances: Osteoporosis | Loss of bone mass, bone resorption outpaces deposit spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture |
| Osteoporosis risk factors | lack of estrogen, calcium or Vitamin D, petite body form, immobility, low levels of TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone), and diabetes mellitus |
| When does bone density peak? Which gender loses bone mass more rapidly? | Bone density peaks about 30 years of age. Women lose bone mass more rapidly than men |
| Synthesis of Vitamin D through sunlight | Vitamin D is manufactured in the skin after absorption of sunlight. In the kidneys, V. D is transformed into a biological active form of Vitamin D called Calcitriol |
| Synthesis of Vitamin D through dietary aid | Vitamin D is ingested through food and supplements absorbed by the intestines, carried to liver by bloodstream. Once in the liver, V. D turns into primary form of circulating V.D, called Calcidiol |
| Calcidiol vs calcitriol | Calcidiol (25‑hydroxyvitamin D) is the major circulating storage form of vitamin D, while calcitriol (1,25‑dihydroxyvitamin D) is the active hormone that regulates calcium and phosphate balance. |
| What does the synthesis of Vitamin D facilitate? | The synthesis of V.D facilitates calcium absorption from the small intestines, the kidneys, and the rebuilding of bone tissue. |
| Osteoporosis Treatment and Prevention | Calcium, V.D and fluoride supplements weight bearing exercise throughout life Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMS, Statins) increase mineral density |
| Piaget's Disease | Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull. Piagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone and reduced mineralization. Normal bones are straight; Piaget's are porous and curved. |
| Cause and treatment of Piaget's Disease | The cause is unknown, the treatment is calcitonin and biphosphates |
| How is fetal age determined from x-rays or sonogram? | Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably, so fetal age is easily determined by x-ray or sonogram |
| At birth, most ______ bones are well ossified, with the exception of the ________ | long, epiphyses |
| Nearly all bones are completely ossified by age ___? | 25 |
| Bone mass decreases with age beginning in the ____ decade | 4th |
| Rate of loss of bone is determined by _____ and ______ | genetics and environmental factors |
| What age does bone resorption predominate? | Old age |
| What is the makeup of bone matrix? | 25% water 25% protein (collagen) 50% mineral salts (hydroxyapatites, tricalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, and magnesium hydroxide |
| Endochondrial bone growth. Secondary growth happens from? | Birth to around 25 |
| Growth of endochondrial bones. Lengthened at _____ or ______ | Epiphyseal discs or plates |
| Regulations of bone growth (3) | Vitamins, Hormones, and Physical Stresses |
| Regulations of bone growth: Vitamins | Bone resorption Collagen synthesis Calcium absorption |
| Regulations of bone growth: Hormones | Human Growth Hormone (hGH) -too much=gigantism, acromegaly -too little=dwarfism Sex hormones |
| Regulations of bone growth: Physical Stresses | Hypertrophy and Atrophy |
| Too much Human Growth Hormone (hGH) | Gigantism, Acromegaly |
| Too little Human Growth Hormone (hGH) | Dwarfism |
| Hypertrophy vs Atrophy | Hypertrophy is the increase in tissue or muscle size due to cell enlargement, while atrophy is the decrease in size due to cell shrinkage or loss. |
| Functions of the skeletal system | Support Protect Attachment for muscles Movement-act with muscles as lever |
| Storage of blood cell-producing cells, two kinds | Red bone marrow-energy storage Yellow Bone Marrow-Mineral storage-primarily calcium and phosphorus |
| Red bone marrow stores | energy |
| Yellow bone marrow stores | minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus |
| How many bones are in the human body | 206 |
| skull, rib cage, spine make up what skeleton | Axial Skeleton |
| hips, legs, arms, hands and feet, shoulders make up what skeleton? | Appendicular skeleton |
| In the infantile skull, what is the name for the plates that grow together? | Fontanels |
| How many bones are in the vertebral column of an infant? | 33 |
| How many bones are in the vertebral column of an adult | 26 |
| what are the 4 curvatures of the spine | sacral, lumbar, throracic, and cervical |
| What are the differences of male vs females pelvic weight? | Males are thicker and heavier, females are lighter and thinner |
| What are the differences of male and female pelvic inlet shapes? What about the lesser pelvic cavity shape? | Pelvic inlets of females are round or oval, men's are heart shaped. Women's lesser pelvic cavities are shorter and wider. Men's are longer and narrower. |
| Subpubic angle of men vs women in pelvis. | Women's are greater than 80 degrees, men's are less than 70 degrees. |
| Women's vs men's pelvic outlet shapes | women's pelvic outlets are rounded and larger, men's are smaller |
Created by:
JoshuaB5