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PSYCH CH.2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Hypothesis | A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. |
| Variables | Measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors controlled or observed in a study. |
| Theories | Systems of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. |
| Operational Definition | Describes the exact actions/measures used to evaluate or control a variable. |
| Participants / Subjects | Persons or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study. |
| Reactivity | Alteration of behavior by subjects due to awareness of being observed. |
| Naturalistic Observation | Observing behavior in its natural setting without direct intervention. |
| Case Study | An in-depth investigation of an individual subject. |
| Survey | Questionnaires or interviews collecting self-report data on attitudes, beliefs, or unobservable behaviors. |
| Correlation | Occurs when two variables are related to each other. |
| Positive Correlation | Variables change together in the same direction. |
| Negative Correlation | Variables change in opposite directions. |
| Correlation Coefficient | Numerical index of relationship strength ranging from -1.00 to +1.00. |
| Correlation vs. Causation Rule | Correlation does not equal causation. |
| Experiment | A research method where an investigator manipulates a variable under controlled conditions to observe cause-and-effect. |
| Independent Variable (IV) | The cause/factor manipulated in an experiment. |
| Dependent Variable (DV) | The effect/outcome measured in an experiment. |
| Experimental Group | Receives special treatment regarding the independent variable. |
| Control Group | Does not receive the special treatment; used for comparison. |
| Extraneous Variables | Variables other than the IV that might influence the DV. |
| Confounding Variables | Occurs when two variables are linked in a way that makes it hard to isolate their individual effects. |
| Random Assignment | Equalizing procedure placing subjects randomly into experimental vs. control groups. |
| Between-Group Design | Different participants are exposed to different conditions in an experiment. |
| Within-Group Design | The same participants are exposed to all conditions in an experiment. |
| 3 Goals of the Scientific Enterprise | 1. Measurement and Description 2. Understanding and Prediction 3. Application and Control |
| 5 Steps of a Scientific Investigation | 1. Formulate a Hypothesis 2. Select Method & Design Study 3. Collect Data 4. Analyze Data & Draw Conclusions 5. Report Findings |
| Advantages of the Scientific Approach | Clarity and precision; relative intolerance of error. |
| Pros of Descriptive/Correlational Research | Explores questions that cannot be ethically or practically investigated experimentally. |
| Cons of Descriptive/Correlational Research | Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. |
| Pros of Experimental Research | Uncovers clear cause-and-effect relationships. |
| Cons of Experimental Research | Settings can be artificial; many research questions are unsuited due to ethical boundaries. |
| Empiricism | The premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation and formal, systematic testing rather than reasoning, intuition, or common sense. |
| Empirical Method | An approach relying on direct observation and measurement to collect data and evaluate claims. |
| Empirical Data | Facts and information collected through direct observation or experimentation rather than theoretical speculation. |
| Empirical Investigation | A structured, multi-step scientific inquiry designed to test a specific hypothesis using data collection techniques. |
| Descriptive Research | Methods used to observe and describe behavior without manipulating variables. Useful when experimental manipulation is unethical or impractical, though they cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect. |
| Naturalistic Observation | Observing subjects in their natural environment without direct intervention or manipulation. A major challenge is reactivity, where subjects alter behavior because they are being watched. |
| Case Studies | An in-depth investigation of an individual subject, group, or event. Highly detailed, but findings are often subjective and difficult to generalize. |
| Surveys | Questionnaires or structured interviews used to gather self-reported data about participants' attitudes, behaviors, or background across large groups. |
| Correlation | A statistical measure indicating the degree to which two variables vary together. Correlation does not equal causation. |
| Positive Correlation | Occurs when two variables move in the same direction—as one variable increases, the other increases (e.g., studying hours and test scores). |
| Negative Correlation | Occurs when two variables move in opposite directions—as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., time spent playing video games and test performance). |
| Correlation Coefficient | A numerical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 reflecting the strength and direction of a relationship. |
| Correlation Coefficient Strength | A coefficient near +1.00 or -1.00 indicates a strong relationship, while a coefficient near 0.00 indicates no linear relationship. |
| Experimental Group | The group of participants who receive the special treatment or independent variable manipulation. |
| Control Group | The group of participants who do not receive the special treatment, serving as a baseline comparison for the experimental group. |
| Placebo Effect | Occurs when participants' expectations or beliefs lead them to experience some change, even though they received an inactive treatment (a placebo). |
| Sample Size (N) | The number of individual participants or observations included in a study. Larger sample sizes reduce sampling error and increase statistical reliability. |
| Random Assignment | Every participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group or condition, balancing extraneous variables across conditions to prevent confoundings. |
| Non-Randomized Design | Assigning participants to groups using non-random methods (e.g., convenience or pre-existing groups), introducing confounding variables and reducing internal validity. |
| Deception in Research | Intentionally misleading participants about the true purpose or procedures of an experiment to prevent biased behavior. |
| Ethical Standards for Deception | Must be justified by significant scientific value, present minimal risk, and require immediate debriefing after the study concludes to explain the true nature of the experiment. |
| Animal Research | Conducted when human subjects cannot be ethically used, or to study basic psychological mechanisms across species. |
| Ethical Standards for Animal Research | Researchers must minimize pain, discomfort, and stress, maintain proper living conditions, and justify the necessity of the research before an IACUC. |
Created by:
Cocoalover