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anatomy CH6
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| medulla (term) | innermost part |
| the skeletal system is made of.. (3) | bones, cartilage, ligaments |
| function of minerals | inorganic ions that contribute to osmotic concentration of body fluids |
| yellow bone marrow stores... | lipids |
| process | projections: projection or bump |
| ramus | projections: part of a bone that forms an angle with the rest of the structure |
| sinus | openings: chamber with a bone, normally filled with air |
| foramen | openings: rounded passageway for blood vessels and/or nerves |
| fissure | openings: deep furrow, cleft, or slit |
| meatus | openings: passage or channel, especially the opening of a canal |
| canal | openings: duct or channe; |
| trochanter | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: large, rough projection |
| crest | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: prominent ridge |
| spine | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: pointed process |
| line | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: low ridge |
| tubercule | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: small, rounded projections |
| tuberosity | projections where muscles, tendons, or ligaments attach: rough projection |
| sulcus | depressions: narrow groove |
| fossa | depressions: shallow depression |
| head | projections for forming joints: expanded articular end of an epiphysis, often separated from the shaft by a narrower neck |
| neck | projections for forming joints: narrow connection between epiphysis and diaphysis |
| facet | projections for forming joints: small, flat articular surface |
| condyle | projections for forming joints: smooth, rounded articular process |
| trochlea | projections for forming joints: smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley |
| the bone's matrix is dense due to | calcium slats |
| osteocytes are held in... | lacunae |
| the shaft of a long bone is also called... | diaphysis |
| the head of a long bone is also called... | epiphysis |
| the neck of a long bone is also called... | metaphysis |
| the hollow central space inside of the shaft of a long bone is... | medullary cavity |
| flat bones have both... | spongey and compact bone |
| the layers of flat bones are... | layer of compact bone, spongey bone, another layer of compact bone |
| the compact bone layers in flat bones are called... | cortex |
| the spongey bone layer in flat bones are called... | diploe |
| most of the bone matrix is | calcium phosphate |
| a third of the bone matrix is | collagen fibers |
| 2% of the bone matrix MASS is | cell |
| hydroxyapatite | form an organic framework using collagen fibers, helping with strength and density |
| lacunae | small, fluid-filled cavities between the rings of the bone matrix (lamellae) that house osteocytes |
| synovial joints | permit significant amounts of movement |
| osteogenic cells are also known as | (mesenchymal) osteoprogenitor cells |
| osteogenic cells are found... | in the inner cellular periosteum and the cellular layer of the endosteum that line medullary cavity and central canals |
| osteogenic cells maintain the population of.... | osteoblasts |
| osteogenic cells help with... | fractures |
| osteoblasts are... | immature cells that secrete organic components of the matrix |
| ossification | osteoblasts use osteogenesis to make and release proteins and other organic compounds of the matrix |
| how do osteoblasts turn osteoid to bone? | they increase local concentrations of calcium phosphate above the solubility threshold, triggering the deposit of calcium salts in the organic matrix |
| where do osteocytes come from? | osteoblasts that are completely surrounded by the bone matrix |
| what type of bone cell makes up most of them? | osteocytes |
| osteocytes occupy... | 1 cell per lacunae |
| how do osteocytes link to eachother? | gap junctions |
| can osteocytes divide? | no |
| canaliculi... | support cell to cell communications and support access to nutrients in central canal blood vessels |
| what are canaliculi | cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes |
| what do osteocytes do? | break down, recycle, and rebuild matrixes to stimulate more hydroxyapatite development TO MAINTAIN BONE MATRIX |
| how do osteocytes repair damaged bone? | they can convert to less specialized osteogenic or osteoblasts that help with bone repair if they are released from the lacuna |
| osteoclasts have around... | 50 nuclei |
| what do osteoclasts do? | secrete acids and enzymes to dissolve bone matrix |
| osteoclasts are found... | in shallow osteoclastic crypts/howships lacunae that they make themselves through erosion |
| osteolysis | the ruffled border increases secretory surface area and regulates calcium and phosphate concentration in body fluids |
| osteoclasts are derived from | stem cells that also make monocytes and macrophages for immune system stuff |
| compact bones are made of | many osteons/haversian systems that layer central/haversian canals |
| central canals hold | a capillary and venule |
| venule | small vein |
| perforating/Volkmann canals | perpendicular so they can reach CT and deeper osteons to supply blood |
| lamellae | thin layers of bone/matrix |
| what is the function of collagen fibers in concentric lamellae | add strength and resiliency |
| interstitial lamellae | fill spaces between osteons |
| what are interstitial lamellae made of? | over-recycled matrix |
| circumferential lamellae | line the outside and inside (right before spongey bone) of compact bone |
| trabeculae | meshwork of supporting fiber bundles in spongey bone |
| how are trabeculae in spongey bone oriented? | cross-braced and oriented on stress lines |
| canaliculi in spongey bone allow for... | waste removal and diffusion of nutrients |
| where can you find periosteum? | the outer layer of all bones BESIDES joints |
| the periosteum is important for... | isolating bones from surrounding tissues |
| what part of bone allows a route for nerves and blood vessels to run along the bone? | periosteum |
| can the periosteum help with bone growth and repair? | yes |
| at joints, what does periosteum tissue do? | become continuous with connective tissue that holds bones in place |
| at synovial joints, what does periosteum tissue do? | become continuous with the joint capsule |
| at tendons, what does periosteum tissue do? | intertwine, but cement into the circumferential lamellae by osteoblasts with time/growth |
| perforating/sharpeys fibers | collagen fibers incorporated into bone tissue from tendons/ligaments from the superficial periosteum |
| what is the endosteum? | an incomplete cellular layer that lines the medullar cavity, covering the trabeculae |
| when is the endosteum active? | during growth, repair, and remodeling |
| endosteum do/do not intervene with CT fibers | do not |
| what happens at incomplete cellular layer spots of the endosteum where the matrix is exposed? | osteoclasts & blasts remove and deposit matrix components |
| hetero | different |
| topos | place |
| myositis ossificans | ossification of muscles |
| traumatic myositis ossificans | ossification in an area that has experienced repeated trauma, a single hard hit to soft tissue, or as a result of hip surgery |
| neurogenic heterotrophic ossification | occurs as complication of spinal cord injury |
| appositional growth in bone tissue: | growth in width during endochondral ossification |
| interstitial growth in bone tissue: | growth in length during endochondral ossification |
| when does the cartilage skeleton begin to form? | 6 weeks after fertilization |
| when does the bony skeleton begin to form? (turns from cartilage to bone) | 8 weeks after fertilization (fetal development) |
| what type of bones does endochondral ossification usually help with? | long bones |
| what type of bones does intramembranous ossification usually help with? | flat bones |
| what age does the skeleton stop growing around? | 25 years old |
| dermal bones include... | mandible, parietal, frontal, clavicle and occipital bones |
| the process by which osteoblasts add layers to circumferential lamellae... | appositional growth |
| normal bone growth requires what two main minerals? | calcium and phosphorus |
| function of vitamin D3 on bone growth | cholecalciferol (D3) is where calcitriol is synthesized from |
| function of vitamin C on bone growth | stimulates osteoblast differentiation |
| function of vitamin C on collagen synthesis | required for key enzymatic reactions |
| what is scurvy | loss of bone mass and strength |
| function of vitamin A on bone growth | stimulates osteoblast activity--important for children |
| function of vitamin K and B12 on bone growth | stimulates protein synthesis in normal bone |
| ossification | bone growth |
| calcification | a part of ossification and in other tissues |
| heterotrophic ossification | abnormal development of bone in non-skeletal tissues |
| endochondral ossification happens when... | bone replaces hyaline cartilage |
| endochondral ossification is found mostly in... | long bones |
| interstitial growth... | growth longways, involving the development of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses |
| epiphyseal closure | completion of epiphyseal growth |
| epiphyseal line | former location of hyaline cartilage--you can see it on x-rays |
| appositional growth | growth in width |
| how does appositional growth occur? | inner layer periosteum cells turn into osteoblasts and deposit superficial layers of bone matrix, which then turn into osteocytes |
| intramembranous/dermal ossification | osteoblasts differentiate from mesenchymal stem cells within fibrous or mesenchymal tissue |
| where does intramembranous/dermal ossification typically occur? | flat bones and dermal bones deep to the dermis |
| intramembranous/dermal ossification does not require building off of... | cartilage |
| how does lymph reach osteons? | through perforating canals |
| how do nutrient arteries and veins that supply the diaphysis form? | they enter the cartilage model as endo ossification begins through one or more round nutrient foraminas in the diaphysis |
| how does the initial branch of nutrient artery and vein spread through the rest of the bone? | they branch off and form smaller perforating canals that extend along the length of the shaft and into the osteons |
| how do metaphyseal vessels form? | they supply blood to inner surface of each epiphyseal cartilage, where it is being replaced by bone |
| how do periosteal vessels form? | blood vessels from the periosteum supply blood to superficial osteons of the shaft. then, their branches enter the epiphyses, bringing blood to the secondary ossification centers |
| what is bone remodeling? | the recycling and renewal of organic and mineral components of bone matrix--a homeostatic balance of osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
| how do heavy metals affect bone structure? | they can be incorporated into the matrix by osteoblasts that cant differentiate them from calcium. these heavy metals ions can be dangerous when released into the blood |
| step 1 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | mesenchymal stem cells cluster together and form into osteoblasts, secreting organic components of the matrix |
| step 2 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | the osteoid then becomes calcified by osteoblasts |
| step 3 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | osteoblasts trapped in the osteoid become osteocytes after calcification |
| step 4 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | spicules form as developing bone grows outward from the ossification center in small struts |
| step 5 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | blood vessels begin to grow and branch between spicules and become trapped into the bone |
| step 6 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | spongey bone with blood vessels within it fully develop |
| step 7 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | the spongey bone turns to compact bone due to remodeling |
| step 8 of intramembranous/dermal ossification | osteoblasts on the surface + connective tissue become the periosteum |
| calcitriol | kidneys; increases calcium and phosphate absorption in the intestines |
| growth hormone | pituitary gland; stimulates osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis |
| thyroxine | thyroid gland (follicle cells); with growth hormone, stimulates osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis |
| sex hormones | ovaries/testes; stimulate osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis; estrogen causes earlier epiphyseal closure |
| parathyroid hormone | parathyroid glands; stimulates osteoclast (and osteoblast) activity; increases blood calcium levels |
| calcitonin | thyroid gland (C cells); in pregnant/nursing females, decreases blood calcium and may aid calcium transfer to fetus |
| what is the most abundant mineral in the body? | calcium |
| what % of calcium in the body is within the skeleton? | 99% |
| what % of bone is calcium? | 39% |
| what % of bone is inorganic compounds (mostly collagen)? | 33% |
| how does the skeleton maintain homeostasis in the blood calcium ion concentration? | by being a calcium reserve |
| calcium ions are particularly important to... | muscle cells, plasma membranes, and neurons |
| what two hormones balance to regulate the storage, absorption, and excretion of calcium ions? | calcitonin and parathyroid hormone |
| Calcitonin does all of the following except: increase bone deposition. cause kidneys to excrete calcium. cause less calcitriol to be secreted. increase its level in pregnant women. inhibit osteoclasts.increase bone deposition. cause kidneys to excrete calcium. cause less calcitriol to be secreted. increase its level in pregnant women. inhibit osteoclasts. | increase bone deposition. |
| If blood calcium levels drop below 8.5 mg/dL which hormone is likely to be activated? | both calcitriol and parathyroid hormone |
| open/compound fractures... | project through the skin |
| closed/simple fracture... | stay within the skin |
| fracture hematoma formation | bleeding occurs and a large blood clot (hematoma) forms; circulation disruption kills osteocytes, widening the damaged area |
| callus formation | cells divide and migrate to form internal and external calluses of spongy bone and cartilage that stabilize the fracture |
| spongy bone formation | osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone, uniting broken ends and replacing dead bone fragments |
| compact bone formation | bone remodels and strengthens; repaired bone may be thicker and stronger than before, with swelling marking the site |
| epiphyseal fracture | break at the growth plate (epiphysis) |
| comminuted fracture | bone shatters into multiple fragments |
| greenstick fracture | incomplete break; one side bends, the other cracks (common in children) |
| colles fracture | distal radius break, typically from falling on an outstretched hand |
| pott’s fracture | break at the distal fibula near the ankle |
| 1. fracture hematoma formation | bleeding occurs and a large blood clot (hematoma) forms; circulation disruption kills osteocytes, widening the damaged area |
| 2. callus formation | cells divide and migrate to form internal and external calluses of spongy bone and cartilage that stabilize the fracture |
| 3. spongy bone formation | osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone, uniting broken ends and replacing dead bone fragments |
| 4. compact bone formation | bone remodels and strengthens; repaired bone may be thicker and stronger than before, with swelling marking the site |
| osteopenia | inadequate ossification |
| phosphorus | inorganic component of bone; contributes to bone density |
| what is left at the epiphyses near joints after endochondral ossification? | articular cartilage |
| what is the primary source of calcitriol? | kidneys |
| what is the primary source of growth hormone? | pituitary gland |
| what is the primary source of thyroxine? | thyroid gland follicle cells |
| what is the primary source of sex hormones | estrogen in ovaries and testosterone in testes |
| what is the primary source of parathyroid hormone PTH? | parathyroid |
| what is the primary source of calcitonin? | thyroid gland/c cells |
| what is the effect of calcitriol on the skeletal system? | increases calcium and phosphate ion absorption by the intestines of the digestive tract |
| what is the effect of growth hormone on the skeletal system? | stimulates osteoblast activity and the synthesis of bone matrix |
| what is the effect of thyroxine on the skeletal system? | with growth hormone, it stimulates osteoblast activity and the synthesis of bone matrix |
| what is the effect of sex hormones on the skeletal system? | stimulates osteoblast activity and the synthesis of bone matrix. estrogen stimulates epiphyseal closer earlier than testosterone |
| what is the effect of parathyroid hormone on the skeletal system? | stimulates osteoclast and osteoblast activity. and it increases the blood calcium ion level |
| what is the effect of calcitonin on the skeletal system? | in pregnant and nursing females: it decreases the blood calcium ion level and may aid calcium ion transfer to the fetus |
| intestinal and kidney responses are triggered when blood calcium ion level rises above... | 11 mg/dL |
| what does the thyroid gland do to decrease calcium ion level in blood? | C cells in the thyroid gland secrete calcitonin |
| what does calcitonin do in the bones to decrease calcium ion level in blood? | osteoclast activity decreases but osteoblast activity is unaffected--slowing the calcium release |
| what does calcitonin do in the intestines to decrease calcium ion level in blood? | intestinal absorption of calcium decreases--slowing absorption of calcium |
| calcitonin do in the kidneys to decrease calcium ion level in blood? | inhibits the reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys--causing more calcium to be removed in the urine |
| parathyroid gland responses are triggered when blood calcium ion level lowers below... | 8.5 mg/dL |
| what does the parathyroid gland do in response to low blood calcium ion concentrations? | release PTH |
| what does PTH do in the bones in response to low blood calcium ion concentration? | osteoclasts are stimulated to release calcium ions from bone |
| what does PTH do in the intestines in response to low blood calcium ion concentration? | intestinal absorption of calcium increases |
| what does PTH do in the kidney in response to low blood calcium ion concentration? | kidney absorbs calcium ions, conserving calcium and releasing less calcium in the urine |
| the kidneys produce vitamin D, aka... | calcitriol |
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