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Psych Ch. 2
Section 1: Child & Adolescent Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Who created Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? How many layers are there? | Abraham Maslow; 7 |
| What is the base of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (first 3) in order? | Physiological needs (nutrition, sleep, exercise) Safety and Security needs (house, safe neighborhood, security, stability) Belonginess and Love needs (friends, community, etc) |
| What are the next three layers of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in order? | Self-esteem needs (confidence, feel good about yourself) Need to know & understand (what you need to know for self-actualization) Aesthetic Needs (music, dance, art) |
| What is the final layer of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? How many people reach this level? | Self-actualization: process of fulfilling one's potential Less than 5% of people Ex from Maslow: Jesus, Buddha (not true) |
| What is the basic unit of the brain? What are the three parts of it? | Neuron Cell body, dendrites, and axons |
| What is the cell body? | contains the nucleus |
| What are dendrites? | RECEIVING units that bring information from other cells. Heart of neuroplasticity! |
| What are axons? | SENDING units that carry information away to other neurons or to muscle cells |
| What is a myelin sheath? Are you born with it? | fatty tube that surrounds the axon No |
| What is a synapse? What does it include? | a junction where neurons communicate with each other, or with other kinds of cells Sending end of one neuron, receiving end of another neuron, and the space between them |
| What is the limbic system? | reward center; Collection of structures that sit like a donut on the brainstem |
| What is a neurotransmitter? | chemical that allows neurons to communicate across synapses Ex. dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine |
| What does the right hemisphere of the brain do? What does the left hemisphere of the brain do? Do they work independently? | Right: Spatial, holistic, and integrative thinking (creative) Left: Analytical, language, and sequential processing No, they are interwoven and work together |
| Where is the brainstem? What does it do? When does it develop? | Includes the midbrain and hindbrain; part of the lower brain Regulates body functions like the sleep–wake cycle around 6 weeks after conception |
| Where is the hypothalamus? What does it do? | In the midbrain; regulates internal organs, hormones, body temperature, hunger, emotion, and many other activities |
| What are the three important structures in the limbic system? What do they do? | hippocampus (memory), the cingulate gyrus (problem solving), and the amygdala (emotions) |
| What is the cerebellum, and where is it? What does it do? | latticework of neurons at the back of the brain; movement, muscle tone, concentration, and learning from errors |
| What does the cerebellum work with? What do they do together? | Cortex; producing finely coordinated movements, like speech |
| What is the cerebral cortex? How long does it take to develop? What does it do? | cap covering the other regions of the brain; many years; language and abstract thinking |
| What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? | frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital |
| What is the frontal lobe? What does it do? | largest part of the cortex; organizing information in your mind as you read this text, resisting distraction, and inhibiting impulses |
| What is the prefrontal cortex? What does the prefrontal cortex do? How much does it comprise of the cortex? | portion of the frontal lobe; working memory and emotions, directs activity in other parts of the brain; one-third of the entire cortex |
| When a task activates the prefrontal cortex, what else does it activate? | cerebellum |
| How does the brain develop? How do the areas mature? | orderly way; first areas to mature are motor skills and basic senses, next come language areas, last is prefrontal cortex |
| How do areas mature? | increasing myelination, specializing, building connections, and pruning synapses |
| What is myelination? When does it develop? When is it completed? | development of myelin; begins during the last 3 months of pregnancy and is completed in the sensory and motor areas in the first few years after birth (Infancy & toddlerhood: prenatal-2 years) |
| What is pruning? When does it occur? | Use it or lose it: If neurons are repeatedly activated together, they form stable circuits - those that are not used are pruned (early childhood: 3-5 years) |
| What is synaptogenesis? When does it occur? When is it completed? | spurt in synaptic connections of the brain that occurs from the third trimester of gestation until about 2 years of age (Infancy & toddlerhood: prenatal-2 years) |
| What is glucose rate? When does it occur? What happens in this period? | rate of consumption of glucose, an indicator of energy use in the brain; Early Childhood (3 to 5 Years); Glucose continues to increase and glucose rate is twice that of an adults |
| What is a sensitive period? How does change work before and after this period? When does it occur? | biologically determined period, typically early in life, in which a child readily develops specific abilities. Change is less likely before or after the sensitive period. (Middle Childhood: 6-12 Years) |
| How does the brain grow in size across childhood? 2 things | Cerebral cortex peaks in size by age 11 in girls and 15 in boys Cerebellum peaks a couple years afterwards |
| What is important about the Infancy and Toddlerhood (Prenatal to 2 Years) stage for the brain? | Critical for brain development, synaptogenesis |
| What are the three key changes of Adolescence (13-19)? | Different areas of the brain become more interconnected Pruning continues – synapses in the frontal cortex diminish to adult levels Myelination of the prefrontal cortex increases |
| What do Individual Differences in the Brain Predict? | May explain intelligence May also explain social and emotional abilities |
| What happens when a child (or anyone) experiences stress? What is released? | hypothalamus secretes a hormone that causes the body to produce cortisol |
| What is cortisol? What does cortisol do? | hormone that the body generates as a response to stress alters energy level, emotions, learning, and immune function |
| How do children with an underreactive stress response tend to be? | aggressive, impulsive, delinquent, and have ADHD do not feel stress as readily as other children and so are not as deterred by the negative consequences of their misbehavior |
| How do children with an overreactive stress response tend to be? | have depression, anxiety, or anorexia higher levels of cortisol after mildly stressful events |
| What is behavioral inhibition? Which type of stress response do children with behavioral inhibition have? | a tendency to avoid new people, events, or objects - shyness Overreactive stress response |
| Which hemisphere of the brain do children with behavioral inhibition typically use? | Right hemisphere; children with left hemisphere activity tend to be outgoing |
| What Predicts Individual Differences in Brain Development? | Genetics (Nature) - Heritability works through genetically caused brain differences Experience (Nurture) |
| What is brain plasticity? | brain’s ability to change structure and function because of experience |
| When do we begin to lose brain plasticity? Do we completely lose plasticity in adulthood? | begins to be lost at about 10 years of age; brain remains plastic across the life span to some extent (adult brains grow in volume with new learning) |
| What experiences shape the brain? | Biological factors (exercise, nutrition, sleep, drugs), Social factors (attachment, stress, stimulating environments), Stimulating environments promote brain development |
| How does nature and nurture affect the brain? | Genes (nature) determine the basic architecture of the brain, but experience (nurture) fine-tunes how circuits are formed |
| How does ACES affect the brain? | lifelong effect on brain architecture can result in a brain that is anxious, fearful, impulsive, and less able to cope with future stress poor memory, as well as behavior or learning problems at school |
| What is important about the Infancy and Toddlerhood (Prenatal to 2 Years) stage for growth and motor development? | Normal birth size can range from 5.5 to 10 pounds, but birth size does not predict adult size |
| What is important about the Early Childhood (3 to 5 Years) stage for growth and motor development? | Growth rate slows to 2–3 inches in height and 5 pounds per year |
| What is important about the Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years) stage for growth and motor development? | Average 2–3 inches and 5–6 pounds per year |
| What is important about the Adolescence (13 to 19 Years) stage for growth and motor development? | Growth spurt earlier for girls than boys |
| What is puberty? | physical changes that occur as children move into adulthood |
| What are five aspects of puberty? | growth spurt, changes in proportion of muscle and fat (boys = muscle, girls = fat), development of primary sex characteristics (tests, ovaries), sexual maturation (periods, ejaculation), development of secondary sex characteristic |
| What is another word for menstruation? What is another word for ejaculation? | menarche; spermarche |
| What are secondary sex characteristics for girls and boys? Note: there are small differences | Girls: acne, breast development, height increase, pubic hair, weight increase, and finally menarche Boys: acne, testicle growth, height increase, pubic hair, strength spurt, spermarche, voice change, and finally facial hair |
| Menarche (menstruation) occurs for most girls about what ages? | 12-13 |
| Puberty hormonally begins around what ages? And finishes about what ages? | Starts about 6 to 8 years of age and finishes about 15 to 22 years of age |
| What are the effects of early maturation in girls? What can it lead to? | more likely to have behavior problems, feel depressed and socially anxious, use drugs, and view themselves as less attractive than later-maturing girls may lead to associating with older boys, dating, and promiscuous sexual activity |
| What are the effects of early and late maturation in boys? | effects are inconsistent and short-lived; body image is poor for late-maturing boys, but it improves by late adolescence; early- and late-maturing boys are more likely to be depressed and delinquent than on-time peers |
| What is one cause of early puberty in girls? | Obesity |
| What are the effects of undernutrition? | Delayed puberty (in girls); most common cause of stunted growth in the world; associated with low intelligence, poor academic achievement, irritability, and apathy; affects brain cell growth, neurotransmitters, and myelination |
| How does exercise promote motor skills? | by improving strength and endurance, building healthy bones and muscles, increasing positive emotions, and reducing anxiety and stress; promote socializing with other children, self-esteem, attractiveness, and mental health; play & games |
| Does sugar cause hyperactivity? | No, sugary treats do not affect the behavior of typical children |
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