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Biology Chapter 10
10A, 10B, 10C, 10D
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| abiotic factor | a property of the environment relating to nonliving things. Examples include temperature, nutrient availability, and water availability |
| biotic factor | a property of the environment relating to living things. Examples include predatorprey relationships, competition, and symbiotic relationships |
| tolerance range | the range of environmental conditions in which an organism can survive |
| desert | a geographic area receiving on average less than 250 mm of rain per year |
| structural adaptation | evolved modifications to an organism’s physical structure |
| physiological adaptation | evolved modifications to an organism’s internal functioning or metabolic processes |
| behavioural adaptation | evolved modifications to an organism’s actions |
| thermoregulation in terms of animal survival | Organisms exchange heat through radiation, conduction, and convection. They also produce their own metabolic heat and release heat via evaporation. Organisms obtain water by drinking, eating food, and metabolic water production. |
| Insulation | less insulated an animal is, the easier it is to release heat into the environment, desert animals have a thin insulating layer eg camel |
| camel insulation | top of the camel has a thick layer of fur and fat, reduces the total amount of heat absorbed by the sun, underside consists of a very thin layer of fur and fat, such that they can effectively release large amounts of heat into the environment. |
| Surface area to volume ratioSurface area to volume ratio | An animal can only release or absorb heat at the border between its body and the environment at a rate determined by the environmental temperature compared to the body temperature of the animal and its SA:V |
| high SA:V | releases or absorbs a proportionally large amount of heat in little time, allowing their body temperature to quickly change, eg fennec fox of Northern Africa, has large ears to increase SA:V, releases heat into cold microclimates,avoids direct sunlight |
| low SA:V | releases or absorbs a proportionally low amount of heat and their internal body temperature is resistant to change. However, animals with low SA:V ratios must still release waste heat. |
| low SA:V waste heat | African elephant’s body low SA:V, allow it to survive in direct sunlight, the highly vascularised ears of the African elephant have a high SA:V ratio. When hot, an elephant will often extend and fan its ears, promoting heat loss via convection. |
| Metabolic heat | two strategies for generating heat: an animal can either be an endotherm or an ectotherm. |
| endotherm | an animal that produces the majority of its own heat via metabolic processes eg mammals, birds, fish |
| ectotherm | an animal that obtains heat primarily from the environment, rather than its own metabolic heat eg reptiles, amphibians, |
| endotherms processes | spend a lot of energy producing metabolic heat, but in the desert they must evolve effective strategies to release excess heat. |
| ectotherms processes | obtain heat from their environment, they can use the energy they don’t spend generating metabolic heat on other processes, such as foraging for food or finding a mate. |
| AUSTRALIAN WATER-HOLDING FROG | Australian water-holding frog uses aestivation to survive the hot and dry periods by stores water in its body and creates a sealed burrow, where it begins aestivation. T |
| torpor | a physiological state in which the metabolism of an animal is reduced to conserve energy |
| aestivation | prolonged torpor in response to hot and dry conditions |
| Surface blood flow | When internal temperature rises after activity, blood vessels near the skin dilate and total surface blood flow increases. This hot blood releases heat into the environment, cooling the animal down. (vasodilation) |
| vasodilation | Animals can release heat by the vasodilation of superficial blood vessels eg cotton tail rabbit do this with their ears |
| Increase water input | most desert animals obtain their water from other sources, including the food that they eat. Other sources of water include drinking the dewfall that occurs at night, and the metabolic production of water during aerobic cellular respiration. |
| thorny devil | passively collect water, skin of the thorny devil is covered in tiny capillary-like channels that direct water to the mouth of the lizard |
| Decrease water output | most excrete concentrated urine, extremely long loop of Henle in the nephron. Reptiles and birds use even less water by excreting uric acid with other wastes in a semi-solid state. By excreting highly concentrated wastes, animals conserve water. |
| Evaporative cooling | release huge amounts of heat via the evaporation of water, Sweating and panting are both examples of evaporative cooling methods. but can cause dehydration |
| how does evaporative cooling work | water has a high specific heat capacity and latent heat of vaporisation, it takes a lot of energy to raise the temp of water & convert into water vapour, cools you down because the heat from your body is removed when water evaporates. |
| evaders | generally smaller animals that modify their behaviours to avoid extreme temperatures and high internal body temperatures |
| endurers | generally larger animals that do not avoid extreme temperatures |
| Evading extreme conditions | many desert animals seek out shade or retreat to a burrow system. While the air temperature in and out of shade is nearly identical, in the shade you do not absorb heat from solar radiation, aswell as noctunral animals |
| Enduring extreme conditions | endurers display greater resistance to environmental warming in high-temperature conditions, they still must release metabolic waste and absorbed heat into the environment in order to survive. |
| endurer methods | inactivity during the hottest periods, reducing detrimental metabolic heat production, dig pits to sit down, releasing heat into the cooler soil via conduction. or if too large will seek out shade underneath larger trees. |
| endureres eveolved bahviours | promote heat loss by the evaporation of water eg kangaroos lick their arms, pigs elephant wallow in mud/water baths. water evaporates from skin heat removed ,use an external source of water for evaporative cooling their water balanceunaffected. |
| CATAGLYPHIS BOMBYCINA | legs are longer raises their bodies off the ground, covered in reflective hairs reduces heat absorption,produce heat shock proteins to prevent protein denaturation and promote enzyme reactions at high temperatures |
| In order to survive in hot and dry environments, plants must | 1) decrease their heat intake, 2) maximise their water uptake, and 3) minimise their water loss. |
| Decreasing heat uptake | have a temperature tolerance range and maintaining a temperature closest to the optimal is beneficial. In hot environments, this usually requires the plant to limit heat absorption to limit temperature increases. |
| Three common strategies to limit heat absorption include: | • having lightly coloured or reflective leaves (or photosynthetic organs) • producing leaves of smaller surface area • orienting their leaves vertically to minimise the surface area exposed to the sun |
| Increasing water uptake | little precipitation in the desert, have extensive deep root systems capable of reaching groundwater reserves, spread roots horizontally to absorb the max amount of surface water during the brief periods of rain, and store this water for later use. |
| Water storage | To increase the availability of water, rather than developing highly complex root systems to gain water all year round, some plants collect huge amounts of water during the rainy season and store this water for use in the dry season. rg baobabs |
| Minimising water loss | when the water loss to transpiration is highest, the guard cells lose water and turgor pressure within the cell drops. Consequently, the guard cells become flaccid and the stomata close, preventing the exchange of gases with the environment |
| ADAPTATIONS TO FIRE OF EUCALYPTS | post-fire growth via epicormic buds, protected behind bark and sprout post-fire lignotuber growth post-fire germination eucalypt species have adapted so that their seeds open up and release during intense heat, germinating within days of the fire. |
| Insulation | animals that have a thick insulating layer covering their entire body. Such insulation is usually composed of thick fur, plumage, or subdermal fat to provide maximum protection against heat release into the environment |
| Surface area to volume ratio | reducing their surface area to volume ratio, an animal will release heat slowly, increasing the time it takes for body temperature to drop. the more you resemble a sphere the easier it is to maintain a constant body temperature in a cold environment. |
| endotherms in arctic | more endotherms as cannot obtain heat.\ via convection, conduction, etc from an environment with a lower temperature than their body |
| hibernation | prolonged torpor in response to seasonal cold conditions. Occurs in endotherms such as mammals and birds |
| brumination | prolonged torpor in response to seasonal cold conditions. Occurs in ectotherms such as snakes and lizards |
| benefits of torpor | survive on very little food or water, and remaining inactive in shelter allows animals to avoid harsh weather, low metabolic activity and body temp eg pygmy possum |
| Circulation | blood is pumped out of the heart it is the same temp as the animal’s core body temp If blood of this temp were to circulate to the peripheries, the temp gradient between the body and the environment would be large, causing lots of heat to be lost. |
| There are two main ways to prevent heat loss from blood | vasoconstriction and countercurrent circulation |
| vasoconstriction | the diameter of small blood vessels in the skin and overall blood flow is reduced. When many animals are required to conserve heat, the body sends signals to constrict these blood vessels and heat loss is minimised |
| countercurrent circulation | uses heat in blood travelling from the heart to heat cool blood returning from the animal’s periphery, meaning that the core body temperature is not lowered, temp gradient between the periphery and the environment is reduced, less heat released |
| Reducing exposed surface area | Objects with lower surface area to volume ratios release less heat, so many animals will reduce their surface area to volume ratio by hiding or protecting their peripherals as temperatures drop eg stand on 1 leg |
| Huddling | decrease their individual surface area to volume ratio, decreasing the amount of heat released by the emperor penguin colony into the environment. |
| Seeking shelter | animals can surround themselves in a stable microclimate with little or no wind and more forgiving temperatures. Animal shelters typically include underground burrows, dens, or rocky outcrops. |
| Migrating to a warmer climate | many animals will simply migrate to a lower altitude or more moderate latitudes where resources are more readily available. Warmer climates are also typically easier for breeding and raising newborns |
| tree lines | Low temperatures are the major cause of tree lines, although precipitation, wind, and nutrient availability can also play a role. |
| freezing affects on plants | enzyme and protein-driven reactions progress slowly at lower temperatures, formation of ice crystals within the cell can rupture cell membranes and other cell contents, and the vascular system of plants cannot transport nutrients when blocked by ice |
| what happens to the cell membrane at low temps | cell membrane fluidity decreases, which can quickly lead to disruption of the lipid bilayer, decreased membrane protein effectiveness, and cell contents leaking out. |
| How to prevent freezing | modify the lipid and chemical composition of the cell membrane, receive signals to increase the concentration of solutes such as glucose in their cells, which increases a plant cell’s resistance to freezing, produce antifreeze proteins |
| Deciduous trees | seasonally drops all of its leaves at once to avoid harsh conditions. While there are some drought-adapted trees that drop their leaves due to excessive water loss during hot and dry periods |
| Seed dormancy | unable to germinate during a specific time under certain environmental conditions,seeds will be dispersed before the winter months, and then remain dormant until warmer spring weather,detect increases in temp or light, they quickly sprout and grow |
| ANTIFREEZE PROTEINS IN PLANTS AND FISH | ectothermic fish bodies resist freezing in the frigid conditions by producing antifreeze protein, preventing the formation of large ice crystals |
| biodiversity | the variety of life in the world or within a particular habitat |
| biological systems into five main levels of ecological organisation | cell, organism, population, community, ecosystem |
| population | a group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic location |
| ecosystem | multiple communities interacting with one another and their physical environment |
| population size | the number of individuals in a population |
| carrying capacity | the maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely |
| can the carrying capacity exceed | It is possible to exceed this value, but individuals will then suffer as they cannot all be sustained by the environment. |
| Components that alter a population’s size | he total births and deaths within a population and any immigration or emigration between populations. (biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem can influence this) |
| immigration | the migration of individuals into a population |
| emigration | the migration of individuals out of a population |
| r AND K REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES | The population growth rate of reproducing organisms is influenced by the amount of offspring produced by an individual or pair of individuals in each generation. |
| r-selection | Often referred to as the ‘quick and many’ strategy, this method involves producing large numbers of offspring more regularly, while placing little or no parental care into each offspring. This typically leads to a higher mortality rate. |
| K-selection | Often referred to as the ‘slow and few’ method, this method involves producing much smaller numbers of offspring, which are often much larger in size and more dependent on parental care, population growth remians constant at the CC |
| population distribution | the range of geographical areas that members of a population can be found in, (uniform, random, clumped arrangments) |
| population density | the number of individuals in a population per unit area |
| density-independent factors | environmental factors that affect population growth but are not affected by population density eg climate, nutural distubrnaces ,the same factor will have the same affect in 2 populations at differnt densities |
| density-dependent factors | environmental factors that affect population growth and become stronger as population density increases eg availability of resources, disease, predation, competition |
| low population desnities trends | pop growth of a species over time can be exponential, DD factors will have almost no influence on population growth, as density >and the effect of DD factors get severe, population growth rate begin to slow until population size remains constant |
| symbiosis | an interaction between two organisms of different species living in close proximity to each other |
| mutualism (+/+) | interactions between two organisms of different species where both parties experience some overall benefit |
| g | dazzling arrays of colours in a coral reef are not caused by the coral themselves, but from photosynthetic algae living inside coral tissue. The algae produce glucose and oxygen for the coral, and the coral gives the algae a safe place to live |
| Commensalism (+/0) | interactions between two organisms of different species where one gains some benefit while the other experiences no significant benefit or harm |
| Predation (+/-) | interactions between different species where one organism hunts and kills another organism for food |
| Parasitism (+/–) | interactions between two organisms of different species where one organism obtains nutrients at the expense of a host organism |
| Amensalism (0/–) | interactions between two organisms of different species where one organism experiences some negative effect while the other experiences neither a beneficial nor negative effect |
| eg | ungulates, which are animals with hooves, often walk on grasses and small shrubs which kills or damages them, but the animals themselves receive neither benefit nor harm. |
| Competition (–/–) | interactions between two or more organisms competing for the same pool of resources |
| negative effects of competition | two competing organisms must invest more in obtaining the limited resource, which has a negative effect on each organism, and by extension a negative effect on both species |
| eg | weeds growing in a vegetable garden compete with vegetables by absorbing water and nutrients, thereby limiting vegetable growth. However, vegetables absorbing water and nutrients also limits weed growth in the exact same way. |
| Interspecific competition | the competition for resources between members of different species |
| intraspecific competition | the competition for resources between members of the same species |
| keystone species | a species whose effects on an ecosystem are greater than expected relative to its population size, play a disproportionately large role in maintaining this structure |
| apex predator | a predator that has no natural predators and is at the top of its food chain |
| apex predator role | responsible for controlling the numbers of their prey and, subsequently, the number of many other organisms within an ecosystem, keeping it at a balance. eg great white shark |
| ecosystem engineer | an organism that creates, significantly alters, or maintains the structure of an environment |
| eg | greater bilby, Whilst foraging for food, the bilby digs many small pits in the soil, can then fill with leaves, trap seeds, and increase water permeability and provide a microhabitat, each one of these hole can become a fertile pocket of nutrients, |
| Indigenous Australian Ways of Knowing | a system of knowledge and beliefs cultivated and preserved by Indigenous Australians , focus on interconnections and relationships within systems and between nature and people, in an attempt to generate a holistic understanding of the world |
| smiliar arising | have arisen in comparable ways. Indigenous Ways of Knowing have been generated through the processes of questioning, observation, investigation, experimentation, and application, similar how Western science has developed. |
| Country | area that trad owned and looked after by an Aboriginal language group or community, or by certain people within that group,indicate more than geographical area, concept that encompass the spiritual meaning and feelings of connection with that area |
| hoe Australina plants eveolved | vegetation was changing from rainforest and grassland towards more arid and semi-arid woodlands and forests dominated by Eucalyptus plants, pyrophilic plant species dominate, buhsres occurred- plants adapted to tolerate fire and heat , |
| epicormic shoots | a fresh growth from a plant that is stimulated to develop after the plant has been damaged |
| how did use fire to control and stimulate plant growth to their advantage. | utilised fire in a variety of ways, including to clear shrubs from grasslands and woodlands, promote various species of plants, and to break up Country and therefore reduce the intensity and extent of wildfires |
| why | preserved the canopy of trees, which is important as it provides both shade and food for animals as well as protection that can be used to escape from the fire below. It also reduces the amount of carbon released by the fire |
| The type of findings that might have triggered a decision to burn include the presence of: | • long, dry grass • a large amount of leaf litter on the ground • dead standing shrubs • choked and impassable areas • fire hazards around camps, paths, and areas of fire-sensitive vegetation like rainforest |
| ‘cool burns | smaller, more frequent, and less damaging than wild bushfires, resulting in n overall reduction in fuel loads in the ecosystem, meaning that wild bushfires became less intense, preserving important and limited ecosystem components |
| ire mosaic | the pattern created by Indigenous Australian cultural fire management in which some areas of land are burned while others are left to regenerate , promoted local biodiversity |
| Hazard reduction burns | for fuel reduction, fast burn speed, high temp, high in height, high impact on wildlife as aniamls dont have time to escape and leaves, seeds, roots are born to ash so environment takes long to recover |
| Dreamtime | the set of stories and beliefs of some Indigenous Australians, particularly pertaining to the world and its creation |
| how is fire managemnt leant | Young Indigenous people are taught about fire management by practical instruction and observation, learning from Dreamtime stories and ancestors who show the right way to take care of Country using fire |
| initiatives | The Victorian Traditional Owner Cultural Fire Strategy |
| emus | largest bird in Australia, diet primarily consisting of fruit and seed plants. Like many other birds, emus swallow their food whole and then process it along their digestive tract, including in the gizzard where rocks and grit help to break up matter |
| how far do thay travle | 25km per days |
| qundong tree | quandong is a species of parasitic tree that grows on the roots of a host plant, bears large quantities of fruit throughout spring and summer which have very nutritious flesh that contains a large amount of vitamin C and other nutrients, |
| Germination of the fruit’s seed is difficult | it is surrounded by a very hard, durable seed coat. Despite this, quandongs are very widely distributed through arid and semi-arid Austral |
| mutusitic relationship pt 1 | Emus eat the fruit of the quandong tree. As the seed traverses through the digestive tract, the seed coating softens allowing it to germinate more easily. Emus then excrete this softened seed in their faeces. |
| mutusitic relationship pt 2 | emus both disperse the seed widely and assist in germination and the plant’s early life, as droppings fertilise the young plant. behaviour of emus also means that quandong seeds are distributed to appropriate habitats , shade near host trees, water |
| relationship in terms of indigdenous | Aboriginal people looked for quandong trees where emus resided, particularly near water and in shady areas where the birds might rest. noticed seeds passed through the emu’s digestive system were softened. allow them to be cracked and processed |
| describes ways that some Indigenous people have used the quandong fruit and seeds. | fruit flesh, kernel as food, leaves and oil from seeds as medicine, seed oil for fiew, seeds to increase distribution |
| Quandongs have played a central role in the history of Aboriginal Australians in certain regions. | large assemblages of stone anvils used for cracking the seeds have been discovered, hard stones such as these are very rare in the region – this suggests that Indigenous people transported the stones for manny km to the areas where the quandongs grew. |
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