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Biology Class XI
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the correct sequence of air passage through the human respiratory tract? | External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber → pharynx → larynx → trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → alveoli |
| Which respiratory organ is characteristic of insects? | Tracheal system |
| Why can simple organisms exchange gases by simple diffusion? | Their cells are sufficiently close to the external environment for diffusion to meet their respiratory needs |
| What is the respiratory organ of an earthworm? | Moist skin |
| What is the respiratory organ of aquatic animals such as fish? | Gills |
| What is the major respiratory organ of terrestrial vertebrates? | Lungs |
| What is the difference between direct and indirect gaseous exchange? | Direct exchange occurs directly between body cells and the surrounding medium, whereas indirect exchange involves a specialised respiratory surface and transport system |
| Why is the nasal passage important in respiration? | It filters, warms and humidifies incoming air |
| What is the pharynx? | A common passage for food and air that connects with the larynx and oesophagus |
| Why is the larynx called the voice box? | It contains structures involved in sound production |
| What is the function of the epiglottis? | It helps prevent food from entering the trachea during swallowing |
| What is the glottis? | The opening associated with the larynx through which air passes |
| Why does the trachea not normally collapse? | Its walls contain cartilaginous support in the form of C-shaped or incomplete rings |
| Into what does the trachea divide? | Right and left primary bronchi |
| What is the correct hierarchy of the bronchial tree? | Trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → alveolar region → alveoli |
| What are alveoli? | Thin-walled respiratory structures that provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange |
| Why are alveoli highly efficient sites for gaseous exchange? | They have thin walls, a large surface area and a rich blood supply |
| Why is a rich blood supply important in alveoli? | It helps maintain concentration or partial-pressure gradients required for rapid diffusion |
| What are the three major components of the respiratory membrane? | Alveolar epithelium, basement substance or membrane, and capillary endothelium |
| Why must the respiratory membrane be extremely thin? | A thin diffusion barrier permits rapid exchange of O₂ and CO₂ |
| What are the major stages involved in respiration according to the checklist? | Pulmonary ventilation, diffusion of gases, transport of gases, diffusion between blood and tissues, cellular utilisation of O₂ and CO₂ production |
| What is pulmonary ventilation? | The movement of air into and out of the lungs |
| What is inspiration? | The process by which air enters the lungs |
| Is inspiration an active or passive process during normal breathing? | Active |
| What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration? | It contracts and flattens |
| What happens to the external intercostal muscles during inspiration? | They contract |
| What happens to the ribs during inspiration? | They move upward and outward |
| What happens to thoracic volume during inspiration? | It increases |
| What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during inspiration? | It decreases |
| Why does atmospheric air enter the lungs during inspiration? | Intrapulmonary pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, producing a pressure gradient into the lungs |
| What happens to the diaphragm during quiet expiration? | It relaxes |
| Is quiet expiration normally active or passive? | Passive |
| What happens to thoracic volume during expiration? | It decreases |
| What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during expiration? | It increases |
| Why does air leave the lungs during expiration? | Intrapulmonary pressure becomes greater than atmospheric pressure |
| What is the complete causal chain for inspiration? | Thoracic volume increases → lung volume increases → intrapulmonary pressure decreases → air enters |
| What is the complete causal chain for expiration? | Thoracic volume decreases → lung volume decreases → intrapulmonary pressure increases → air leaves |
| What are the three pressure terms that must be distinguished in breathing? | Atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary or intra-alveolar pressure, and intrapleural pressure |
| Why is intrapleural pressure important? | It helps maintain the relationship between the lungs and thoracic movements |
| What causes air movement into or out of the lungs? | A pressure gradient |
| What is tidal volume? | The volume of air inspired or expired during normal breathing |
| What is the approximate tidal volume in a normal adult? | 500 mL |
| How much air is exchanged per normal breath if tidal volume is 500 mL? | 500 mL |
| If tidal volume is 500 mL and a person takes 12 breaths per minute, what is the approximate volume ventilated per minute? | 6000 mL or 6 L |
| What is inspiratory reserve volume? | The additional volume of air that can be inspired after a normal inspiration |
| What is the approximate IRV? | 2500 to 3000 mL |
| What is expiratory reserve volume? | The additional volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal expiration |
| What is the approximate ERV? | 1000 to 1100 mL |
| What is residual volume? | The volume of air remaining in the lungs after forceful expiration |
| What is the approximate residual volume? | 1100 to 1200 mL |
| Why can residual volume not be voluntarily expelled? | It remains in the lungs even after forceful expiration |
| Why is residual volume physiologically important? | It helps maintain continuous gaseous exchange |
| What is inspiratory capacity? | The maximum volume of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration |
| What is the formula for inspiratory capacity? | IC = TV + IRV |
| If TV is 500 mL and IRV is 3000 mL, what is IC? | 3500 mL |
| What is expiratory capacity? | The maximum volume of air that can be expired after a normal inspiration |
| What is the formula for expiratory capacity? | EC = TV + ERV |
| If TV is 500 mL and ERV is 1000 mL, what is EC? | 1500 mL |
| What is functional residual capacity? | The volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal expiration |
| What is the formula for FRC? | FRC = ERV + RV |
| If ERV is 1000 mL and RV is 1200 mL, what is FRC? | 2200 mL |
| What is vital capacity? | The maximum volume of air that can be expelled after maximum inspiration |
| What is the formula for vital capacity? | VC = IRV + TV + ERV |
| If IRV = 3000 mL, TV = 500 mL and ERV = 1000 mL, what is VC? | 4500 mL |
| What is total lung capacity? | The total volume of air contained in the lungs after maximum inspiration |
| What is the formula for TLC using vital capacity? | TLC = VC + RV |
| What is the complete formula for TLC in terms of the four basic volumes? | TLC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV |
| If VC = 4500 mL and RV = 1200 mL, what is TLC? | 5700 mL |
| If TLC is 5700 mL and RV is 1200 mL, what is VC? | 4500 mL |
| If IC is 3500 mL and TV is 500 mL, what is IRV? | 3000 mL |
| If EC is 1500 mL and TV is 500 mL, what is ERV? | 1000 mL |
| If FRC is 2200 mL and ERV is 1000 mL, what is RV? | 1200 mL |
| If VC is 4500 mL, IRV is 3000 mL and TV is 500 mL, what is ERV? | 1000 mL |
| Which respiratory volume cannot be directly measured using ordinary spirometry? | Residual volume |
| Why can ordinary spirometry not directly measure residual volume? | Residual volume remains in the lungs and cannot be expelled during the manoeuvre measured by ordinary spirometry |
| What does spirometry measure? | Respiratory volumes and capacities that can be obtained from air moved into and out of the lungs |
| What is a spirogram? | A graphical trace representing changes in respiratory volume during breathing |
| On a spirogram, what feature represents normal breathing? | Small regular changes corresponding to tidal volume |
| What is diffusion of respiratory gases? | Movement of gases down their partial-pressure gradients |
| In which direction does O₂ diffuse in the lungs? | From alveoli to pulmonary blood |
| In which direction does CO₂ diffuse in the lungs? | From blood to alveoli |
| In which direction does O₂ diffuse at systemic tissues? | From blood to tissues |
| In which direction does CO₂ diffuse at systemic tissues? | From tissues to blood |
| What is partial pressure? | The pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases |
| Why is partial pressure important in gaseous exchange? | Differences in partial pressure create the gradients that drive diffusion |
| What determines the direction of diffusion of O₂ or CO₂? | The partial-pressure gradient |
| What happens to deoxygenated blood entering pulmonary capillaries? | It receives O₂ from alveolar air and loses CO₂ to alveolar air |
| What happens to blood leaving pulmonary capillaries? | It becomes oxygenated |
| What factors affect diffusion of respiratory gases according to the checklist? | Solubility, pressure gradient, membrane thickness and surface area |
| How does increasing the pressure gradient affect gaseous diffusion? | It favours more rapid diffusion |
| How does membrane thickness affect gaseous diffusion? | A thicker membrane increases diffusion distance and reduces the efficiency of diffusion |
| How does surface area affect gaseous diffusion? | A larger surface area favours greater gaseous exchange |
| Why is the large surface area of alveoli important? | It provides a large area across which O₂ and CO₂ can diffuse |
| In what two forms is oxygen transported in blood? | Dissolved in plasma and bound to haemoglobin |
| Which is the major form of oxygen transport? | Oxygen bound to haemoglobin |
| What is formed when O₂ binds reversibly to haemoglobin? | Oxyhaemoglobin |
| Where is haemoglobin present? | In red blood cells |
| What is haemoglobin? | A respiratory pigment in RBCs that binds oxygen reversibly |
| Where does oxygen loading onto haemoglobin mainly occur? | In the lungs |
| Where does oxygen unloading from haemoglobin mainly occur? | In the tissues |
| What does the oxygen dissociation curve represent? | The relationship between the partial pressure of O₂ and the percentage saturation of haemoglobin |
| What is plotted on the X-axis of the oxygen dissociation curve? | Partial pressure of O₂ |
| What is plotted on the Y-axis of the oxygen dissociation curve? | Percentage saturation of haemoglobin |
| What is the shape of the oxygen dissociation curve? | Sigmoid or S-shaped |
| Why is the oxygen dissociation curve sigmoid? | Because haemoglobin shows cooperative binding of oxygen, so binding of one O₂ affects the affinity for subsequent O₂ molecules |
| What happens to haemoglobin oxygen saturation as pO₂ increases? | It generally increases |
| Why is high pO₂ in the lungs favourable for oxygen loading? | High pO₂ promotes high haemoglobin saturation |
| Why is lower pO₂ in tissues favourable for oxygen unloading? | The lower pO₂ promotes dissociation of O₂ from haemoglobin |
| How does increased CO₂ affect haemoglobin's affinity for O₂? | It decreases haemoglobin's affinity for O₂ |
| How does increased H⁺ concentration affect haemoglobin's affinity for O₂? | It decreases haemoglobin's affinity for O₂ |
| How does lower pH affect oxygen unloading? | It promotes oxygen unloading by decreasing haemoglobin's affinity for O₂ |
| What is the Bohr effect? | The decrease in haemoglobin's affinity for O₂ caused by increased CO₂ and H⁺ concentration or decreased pH, promoting O₂ unloading in tissues |
| Why is the Bohr effect advantageous in metabolically active tissues? | Such tissues produce more CO₂ and H⁺, promoting greater oxygen unloading where oxygen demand is high |
| What three major forms are used to transport CO₂ in blood? | Dissolved in plasma, as carbaminohaemoglobin, and mainly as bicarbonate ions |
| Which is the major form of CO₂ transport? | Bicarbonate ions |
| What is carbaminohaemoglobin? | A reversible compound formed when CO₂ binds with haemoglobin |
| What is the first reaction involved in bicarbonate formation? | CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ |
| What is the second reaction involved in bicarbonate formation? | H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ |
| What enzyme facilitates bicarbonate formation in RBCs? | Carbonic anhydrase |
| What is the role of carbonic anhydrase in CO₂ transport? | It catalyses the rapid conversion of CO₂ and water into carbonic acid, which dissociates into H⁺ and bicarbonate |
| What happens to bicarbonate when it leaves the RBC? | Chloride ions enter the RBC to maintain ionic balance |
| What is the chloride shift? | The exchange in which bicarbonate leaves the RBC while chloride enters it to maintain ionic balance |
| Why is the chloride shift important? | It helps maintain ionic balance during bicarbonate transport |
| What happens to the chloride shift in the lungs? | The process reverses to facilitate conversion of bicarbonate back toward CO₂ for exhalation |
| What is the respiratory rhythm centre? | A centre in the medulla involved in generating respiratory rhythm |
| Where is the respiratory rhythm centre located? | Medulla |
| What is the pneumotaxic centre? | A respiratory centre in the pons that modifies respiratory rhythm |
| Where is the pneumotaxic centre located? | Pons |
| What is the role of the pneumotaxic centre? | It modifies the respiratory rhythm |
| What does the chemosensitive area detect? | Changes associated with CO₂ and H⁺ concentration |
| How does the chemosensitive area influence breathing? | It sends signals to respiratory centres, adjusting the rate and depth of breathing |
| What happens to breathing when CO₂ levels rise? | Respiratory activity is increased to promote greater removal of CO₂ |
| Why is CO₂ an important chemical regulator of respiration? | Changes in CO₂ alter associated H⁺ concentration and strongly influence respiratory centres |
| What are peripheral chemoreceptors mentioned in the checklist? | Receptors associated with carotid and aortic bodies |
| What do peripheral chemoreceptors detect? | Chemical changes relevant to respiratory regulation |
| What is asthma? | A respiratory disorder involving narrowing of airways and difficulty in breathing |
| What happens to the airways during asthma? | They become narrowed |
| What is emphysema? | A disorder involving damage to alveolar walls, reducing respiratory surface and impairing gas exchange |
| What is a major association of emphysema mentioned in the checklist? | Smoking |
| Why does emphysema impair gaseous exchange? | Damage to alveolar walls reduces effective respiratory surface area |
| What are occupational respiratory disorders associated with? | Long-term exposure to harmful dust or particles in occupational environments |
| What is a major consequence of occupational respiratory disorders? | Lung damage |
| What is a key prevention concept for occupational respiratory disorders? | Reducing exposure to harmful dust or particles in the workplace |
| A patient has damaged alveolar walls and reduced respiratory surface area; which disorder best fits? | Emphysema |
| A respiratory condition involving airway narrowing is most consistent with which disorder? | Asthma |
| An individual has prolonged occupational exposure to harmful dust particles followed by lung damage; what category of disorder is indicated? | Occupational respiratory disorder |
| If thoracic volume increases, what happens to intrapulmonary pressure? | It decreases |
| If intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure, which direction does air move? | Into the lungs |
| If thoracic volume decreases, what happens to intrapulmonary pressure? | It increases |
| If intrapulmonary pressure becomes greater than atmospheric pressure, which way does air move? | Out of the lungs |
| Which event occurs first in inspiration: fall in intrapulmonary pressure or increase in thoracic volume? | Increase in thoracic volume |
| Which event directly causes atmospheric air to enter the lungs during inspiration? | The decrease in intrapulmonary pressure relative to atmospheric pressure |
| If the diaphragm remains contracted and flattened, what phase of breathing is favoured? | Inspiration |
| If the diaphragm relaxes and thoracic volume decreases, what phase is occurring? | Expiration |
| Which respiratory capacity contains residual volume? | Functional residual capacity and total lung capacity |
| Which of the following includes all four basic respiratory volumes? | Total lung capacity |
| Which capacity equals TV + IRV? | Inspiratory capacity |
| Which capacity equals TV + ERV? | Expiratory capacity |
| Which capacity equals ERV + RV? | Functional residual capacity |
| Which capacity equals IRV + TV + ERV? | Vital capacity |
| Which capacity equals VC + RV? | Total lung capacity |
| Which respiratory volume remains after forceful expiration? | Residual volume |
| Which respiratory volume represents additional air inspired after normal inspiration? | Inspiratory reserve volume |
| Which respiratory volume represents additional air forcibly expired after normal expiration? | Expiratory reserve volume |
| Which respiratory volume corresponds to ordinary quiet breathing? | Tidal volume |
| If TV = 500 mL, IRV = 2500 mL, ERV = 1000 mL and RV = 1200 mL, calculate VC. | 4000 mL |
| Using the same values, calculate TLC. | 5200 mL |
| Using TV = 500 mL and IRV = 2500 mL, calculate IC. | 3000 mL |
| Using TV = 500 mL and ERV = 1000 mL, calculate EC. | 1500 mL |
| Using ERV = 1000 mL and RV = 1200 mL, calculate FRC. | 2200 mL |
| If VC = 4000 mL and RV = 1200 mL, calculate TLC. | 5200 mL |
| If TLC = 5200 mL and VC = 4000 mL, calculate RV. | 1200 mL |
| If VC = 4500 mL and TV = 500 mL and IRV = 3000 mL, calculate ERV. | 1000 mL |
| If IC = 3500 mL and TV = 500 mL, calculate IRV. | 3000 mL |
| If FRC = 2200 mL and RV = 1200 mL, calculate ERV. | 1000 mL |
| What is the primary origin of the root in a typical flowering plant? | Radicle |
| What is the usual orientation of a root with respect to gravity? | Positive geotropism or gravitropism |
| Which two stem features are generally absent in roots? | Nodes and internodes |
| What is the function of the root cap? | It protects the root tip and helps the root penetrate through soil |
| What is the correct order of regions from the root tip upward? | Root cap → meristematic region → elongation region → maturation region |
| Which root region contains actively dividing cells? | Meristematic region |
| What are the characteristic cells of the meristematic region? | Small cells with dense cytoplasm and prominent nuclei |
| Which root region is responsible for increase in root length due to cell elongation? | Elongation region |
| What major process characterises the maturation region? | Cell differentiation |
| Where do root hairs develop? | Maturation region |
| Why are root hairs important? | They increase the absorbing surface area of the root |
| Are root hairs multicellular or unicellular? | Unicellular |
| What are root hairs structurally? | Epidermal extensions |
| Which root system has a persistent primary root? | Tap root system |
| Which root system is typical of dicots? | Tap root system |
| What is a characteristic of a fibrous root system? | The primary root is short-lived and numerous roots arise from the base |
| Which major plant group typically has a fibrous root system? | Monocots |
| Which root system is represented by mustard? | Tap root system |
| Which root system is represented by wheat? | Fibrous root system |
| What are adventitious roots? | Roots that develop from plant parts other than the radicle or primary root |
| What type of modified root is carrot? | Conical storage root |
| What type of modified root is turnip? | Fusiform storage root |
| What type of modified root is sweet potato? | Adventitious storage root |
| What is the function of storage roots? | Storage of reserve food |
| What are prop roots? | Roots arising from branches that provide mechanical support |
| Which plant is the classic example of prop roots? | Banyan |
| What are stilt roots? | Roots arising from lower stem nodes that provide support |
| Which plant has stilt roots? | Maize |
| What are pneumatophores? | Special respiratory roots that grow upward and facilitate gaseous exchange |
| Which plant is associated with pneumatophores? | Rhizophora |
| Why do pneumatophores grow upward? | They facilitate gaseous exchange in swampy or marshy habitats |
| A root arises from a branch and supports the plant; identify the modification. | Prop root |
| A root arises from a lower stem node and provides support; identify it. | Stilt root |
| A root grows upward in a swampy habitat to facilitate gaseous exchange; identify it. | Pneumatophore |
| Which is the correct matching: carrot, turnip, sweet potato? | Carrot → conical storage root; turnip → fusiform root; sweet potato → adventitious storage root |
| From which embryonic structure does the stem develop? | Plumule |
| What are nodes? | Points on the stem where leaves or branches arise |
| What are internodes? | Regions between two successive nodes |
| Where are terminal or apical buds found? | At the apex of the stem |
| Where are axillary buds found? | In the axils of leaves |
| What are the three major functions associated with stem modifications? | Storage, perennation and vegetative propagation |
| What is a rhizome? | A horizontal underground stem with nodes, scale leaves and adventitious roots |
| Which plant represents a rhizome? | Ginger |
| What distinguishes a potato tuber from a root storage organ? | Potato is a swollen underground stem and its eyes represent nodes or buds |
| Which plant has a tuber modification of the stem? | Potato |
| What is a bulb? | A reduced underground stem associated with fleshy scale leaves and storage |
| Which plant has a bulb? | Onion |
| What is a corm? | A short, swollen underground stem modification used mainly for storage |
| Which plant is given as an example of a corm? | Colocasia |
| Which stem modification is represented by ginger? | Rhizome |
| Which stem modification is represented by potato? | Tuber |
| Which stem modification is represented by onion? | Bulb |
| Which stem modification is represented by Colocasia? | Corm |
| Why are the eyes of potato important in identifying it as a stem? | They represent nodes or buds capable of producing new plants |
| What is a runner? | A subaerial stem that creeps horizontally and produces roots at nodes |
| Which type of stem modification is a runner? | Subaerial modification |
| What is a stolon? | A horizontal or arching branch that can produce new plants |
| What is a sucker? | A stem arising from an underground portion that emerges upward and forms a new plant |
| What is an offset? | A short branch with one internode, characteristic of certain aquatic plants |
| Which plants are examples of offset-bearing plants? | Pistia and Eichhornia |
| Which stem modification is associated with vegetative propagation in grass? | Runner |
| Which stem modification is associated with Pistia? | Offset |
| Which stem modification is associated with mint? | Sucker |
| What is a stem tendril? | An aerial stem modification used for climbing or support |
| Which plants are examples of stem tendrils? | Cucurbita and grapevine |
| What is the function of stem thorns? | Protection |
| Which plants show stem thorns according to the checklist? | Citrus and Bougainvillea |
| What is a phylloclade or cladode? | A modified aerial stem that performs photosynthesis |
| Which plants are examples of phylloclade or cladode? | Opuntia and Euphorbia |
| Why are leaves often reduced in plants possessing phylloclades? | The modified stem performs photosynthesis, while leaves may be reduced to spines or other structures |
| Match the following stem modifications with examples: rhizome, tuber, bulb, corm. | Rhizome → Ginger; tuber → Potato; bulb → Onion; corm → Colocasia |
| Match the following subaerial modifications with examples. | Runner → Grass; stolon → propagation examples such as strawberry or jasmine; sucker → Mint; offset → Pistia or Eichhornia |
| Match the aerial stem modifications with examples. | Tendril → Cucurbita; thorn → Citrus; phylloclade → Opuntia |
| What are the three basic parts of a typical leaf? | Leaf base, petiole and lamina |
| What is the function of the leaf base? | It attaches the leaf to the stem and may bear stipules |
| What is a pulvinus? | A swollen leaf base found in legumes |
| How may the leaf base differ in monocots? | It may sheath the stem |
| What is the function of the petiole? | It holds the lamina away from the stem and assists exposure to sunlight and air |
| What is the lamina? | The broad expanded portion of a leaf and its main photosynthetic region |
| What are the three major structures associated with the lamina's vascular network? | Midrib, veins and veinlets |
| What is reticulate venation? | Venation in which veins form a network |
| Which plant group usually has reticulate venation? | Dicots |
| What is parallel venation? | Venation in which veins run parallel to one another |
| Which plant group usually has parallel venation? | Monocots |
| Why should the monocot-reticulate and dicot-parallel association not be treated as absolute? | The checklist specifically states that these are usual associations rather than absolute rules |
| What is phyllotaxy? | The arrangement of leaves on the stem |
| What is alternate phyllotaxy? | One leaf occurs at each node |
| Which plants are examples of alternate phyllotaxy? | China rose, mustard and sunflower |
| What is opposite phyllotaxy? | Two leaves occur at each node |
| What is opposite and superposed phyllotaxy? | Successive pairs of leaves occur directly above one another |
| What is opposite and decussate phyllotaxy? | Successive pairs of leaves are arranged at right angles to one another |
| Which examples are associated with opposite and decussate phyllotaxy? | Calotropis and guava |
| What is whorled phyllotaxy? | More than two leaves occur at one node |
| Which plant has whorled phyllotaxy? | Alstonia |
| Which leaf modification is represented by pea? | Tendril |
| Which leaf modification is represented by cactus? | Spine |
| Which plants have insectivorous leaf modifications according to the checklist? | Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap and Nepenthes |
| Why are insectivorous leaves modified? | For nutrient acquisition, especially nitrogen |
| How can a simple leaf be distinguished from a compound leaf? | In a simple leaf, incisions do not reach the midrib or petiole base and the lamina remains continuous; in a compound leaf, the lamina is divided into leaflets |
| Why are individual leaflets of a compound leaf not considered separate leaves? | They do not possess individual axillary buds; the axillary bud occurs at the base of the whole leaf |
| What are the two major types of compound leaves listed? | Pinnately compound and palmately compound |
| What is an inflorescence? | The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis |
| What is the defining feature of racemose inflorescence? | The main axis continues to grow |
| What is the arrangement of flowers in racemose inflorescence? | Acropetal |
| In racemose inflorescence, where are the older flowers located? | Towards the base |
| In racemose inflorescence, where are the younger flowers located? | Towards the apex |
| What does acropetal mean in the context of racemose inflorescence? | Older flowers below and younger flowers above |
| What is the defining feature of cymose inflorescence? | The main axis terminates in a flower and its growth becomes limited |
| What is the arrangement of flowers in cymose inflorescence? | Basipetal |
| In cymose inflorescence, where are older flowers located? | Towards the top or centre |
| In cymose inflorescence, where are younger flowers located? | Towards the base or periphery |
| What does basipetal mean in the context of cymose inflorescence? | Older flowers above and younger flowers below |
| What is a cyathium? | A special type of inflorescence represented by Euphorbia |
| Which plant has a hypanthodium inflorescence? | Ficus |
| Which plants are associated with verticillaster? | Ocimum and Salvia |
| Match special inflorescences with their examples. | Cyathium → Euphorbia; hypanthodium → Ficus; verticillaster → Ocimum and Salvia |
| What is a flower botanically considered to be? | The reproductive structure of an angiosperm and a modified shoot |
| What are the four main floral whorls? | Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium |
| Which floral whorls are non-reproductive? | Calyx and corolla |
| Which floral whorls are reproductive? | Androecium and gynoecium |
| What is a complete flower? | A flower possessing all four main floral whorls |
| What is an incomplete flower? | A flower in which one or more of the four main whorls are absent |
| What is a bisexual flower? | A flower possessing both androecium and gynoecium |
| What is a unisexual flower? | A flower possessing only one reproductive whorl |
| What are staminate and pistillate flowers? | Staminate flowers are male and pistillate flowers are female |
| What is an actinomorphic flower? | A radially symmetrical flower that can be divided into similar halves by many vertical planes |
| Which plants are examples of actinomorphic flowers? | Mustard, Datura and chilli |
| What is a zygomorphic flower? | A bilaterally symmetrical flower that can be divided into similar halves by one plane |
| Which plants are examples of zygomorphic flowers? | Pea and bean |
| What is an asymmetric flower? | A flower in which no plane produces two equal halves |
| Which plant is an example of an asymmetric flower? | Canna |
| What does trimerous mean? | Floral parts occur in multiples of three |
| What does tetramerous mean? | Floral parts occur in multiples of four |
| What does pentamerous mean? | Floral parts occur in multiples of five |
| What merosity is common in monocot flowers? | Trimerous |
| What merosity is common in dicot flowers? | Tetramerous or pentamerous |
| What is a hypogynous flower? | A flower with a superior ovary and other floral parts positioned below it |
| Which plants are examples of hypogynous flowers in the checklist? | Mustard, China rose and brinjal |
| What is a perigynous flower? | A flower in which the other floral parts arise around the ovary, which appears central in position |
| Which examples are associated with perigynous flowers? | Rose, plum and peach |
| What is an epigynous flower? | A flower with an inferior ovary, with the other floral parts appearing above it |
| Which plants have epigynous flowers according to the checklist? | Guava, cucumber and sunflower |
| What is aestivation? | The arrangement of sepals or petals in a floral bud |
| What is valvate aestivation? | Margins of adjacent petals or sepals touch one another without overlapping |
| Which plant has valvate aestivation? | Calotropis |
| What is twisted aestivation? | One margin of a petal or sepal overlaps the next while the other margin is overlapped by the previous one |
| Which plants show twisted aestivation? | China rose, lady's finger and cotton |
| What is imbricate aestivation? | Irregular overlapping of floral parts without a fixed pattern |
| Which plant is the example of imbricate aestivation? | Cassia |
| What is vexillary aestivation? | A specialised descending imbricate arrangement characteristic of papilionaceous corolla |
| Which plant has vexillary aestivation? | Pea |
| What is the easiest high-yield matching set for aestivation? | Calotropis → valvate; China rose → twisted; Cassia → imbricate; Pea → vexillary |
| What is the calyx? | The whorl of sepals, usually green, that protects the floral bud |
| What do polysepalous and gamosepalous mean? | Polysepalous means sepals are free; gamosepalous means sepals are fused |
| What is the corolla? | The whorl of petals, usually coloured and involved in attracting pollinators |
| What do polypetalous and gamopetalous mean? | Polypetalous means petals are free; gamopetalous means petals are fused |
| What are the three main parts of a stamen? | Filament, anther and connective |
| What is the usual structure of a typical anther? | It is bilobed, each lobe has two thecae, giving four pollen sacs or microsporangia |
| How many thecae are present in a typical bilobed anther? | Four in total |
| How many pollen sacs or microsporangia are present in a typical anther? | Four |
| What does epipetalous mean? | Stamens are attached to petals |
| What does epiphyllous mean? | Stamens are attached to the perianth |
| What does monadelphous mean? | Stamens are united into one bundle |
| What does diadelphous mean? | Stamens are united into two bundles |
| What does polyadelphous mean? | Stamens are united into more than two bundles |
| What does syngenesious mean? | Anthers are fused while the filaments remain free |
| What does synandrous mean? | Anthers and filaments are fused |
| Which plant is associated with monadelphous stamens? | China rose |
| Which plant is associated with diadelphous stamens? | Pea |
| Which plant is associated with polyadelphous stamens? | Citrus |
| Which plant is associated with syngenesious stamens? | Sunflower |
| What are the three parts of the gynoecium? | Stigma, style and ovary |
| What does monocarpellary mean? | The gynoecium consists of one carpel |
| What does multicarpellary mean? | The gynoecium consists of more than one carpel |
| What does apocarpous mean? | Carpels are free from one another |
| What does syncarpous mean? | Carpels are fused with one another |
| What is the difference between apocarpous and syncarpous gynoecia? | Apocarpous gynoecia have free carpels, whereas syncarpous gynoecia have fused carpels |
| What type of gynoecium is associated with a single carpel? | Monocarpellary |
| What type of gynoecium is associated with fused carpels? | Syncarpous |
| What is placentation? | The arrangement of ovules within the ovary |
| What is marginal placentation? | The placenta develops along the ventral suture and ovules are arranged in rows |
| Which plant has marginal placentation? | Pea |
| What is axile placentation? | Ovules are attached to a central axis and septa divide the ovary into locules |
| Which plants show axile placentation? | China rose, tomato and lemon |
| What is parietal placentation? | Ovules are attached to the inner wall or periphery of the ovary |
| Which plants show parietal placentation? | Mustard and Argemone |
| What can happen to the ovary in parietal placentation? | False septa may develop |
| What is free central placentation? | Ovules occur on a central axis but septa are absent |
| Which plants have free central placentation? | Dianthus and primrose |
| What is basal placentation? | The placenta occurs at the base of the ovary and usually bears a single or few ovules |
| Which plants show basal placentation? | Sunflower and marigold |
| What is the high-yield placentation matching set? | Pea → marginal; China rose → axile; tomato → axile; lemon → axile; mustard → parietal; Argemone → parietal; Dianthus → free central; primrose → free central; sunflower → basal; marigold → basal |
| How can axile and free central placentation be distinguished? | Both have ovules associated with a central axis, but axile placentation has septa dividing the ovary into locules whereas free central placentation lacks septa |
| How can marginal and parietal placentation be distinguished? | Marginal placentation has the placenta along the ventral suture with ovules in rows, whereas parietal placentation has ovules attached to the inner wall or periphery |
| What is an ovule after fertilisation? | It develops into a seed |
| What does the ovary develop into after fertilisation? | A fruit |
| What is a fruit botanically? | The mature ovary |
| What is a true fruit? | A fruit that develops from the ovary |
| What is a false or accessory fruit? | A fruit in which floral parts other than the ovary also contribute to its formation |
| Which examples are given for false or accessory fruits? | Apple, strawberry and cashew |
| What is a parthenocarpic fruit? | A fruit that develops without fertilisation |
| Why are parthenocarpic fruits usually seedless? | They develop without fertilisation and therefore normally do not undergo ordinary seed formation |
| What are the layers of the pericarp? | Epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp |
| What is the pericarp? | The fruit wall |
| What is the relationship between ovule and seed? | Ovule → seed |
| What is the relationship between ovary and fruit? | Ovary → fruit |
| What is a seed? | A mature ovule after fertilisation |
| What are the major structures of a typical dicot seed? | Seed coat, hilum, micropyle, two cotyledons and embryo axis |
| What are the two main embryonic structures present in a dicot seed? | Plumule and radicle |
| What is the hilum? | The scar or region associated with attachment of the seed to its parent structure |
| What is the micropyle? | A small opening associated with the seed coat |
| How many cotyledons does a typical dicot seed possess? | Two |
| Which example is given for a typical dicot seed? | Bean or gram |
| Which example is given for a typical monocot seed? | Maize |
| How many cotyledons does a typical monocot seed possess? | One |
| What is the cotyledon of a maize seed called? | Scutellum |
| What major storage tissue is present in a typical maize seed? | Endosperm |
| What is the aleurone layer? | A layer associated with the endosperm of the monocot seed described in the checklist |
| What structures protect the embryonic shoot and root in a maize seed? | Coleoptile protects the plumule and coleorhiza protects the radicle |
| What are the major structures of a maize seed embryo? | Scutellum, plumule and radicle, with coleoptile and coleorhiza associated with the shoot and root respectively |
| What is an albuminous or endospermic seed? | A seed in which endosperm is retained at maturity |
| Which examples are albuminous seeds? | Wheat, maize, barley, castor and coconut |
| What is a non-albuminous or non-endospermic seed? | A seed in which endosperm is consumed during embryo development |
| Which examples are non-albuminous seeds? | Pea, groundnut and bean |
| What is perisperm? | A specialised seed structure associated with persistent nucellar tissue |
| What is the purpose of knowing floral formula symbols? | They allow floral characteristics such as symmetry, sexuality, fusion, adhesion, ovary position and number of floral members to be represented compactly |
| What floral features should be identified from a floral diagram? | Whorls, symmetry, ovary position, fusion, placentation, number of members and floral formula |
| What should be included in a semi-technical description of a flowering plant? | Habit, root, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower, calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium, fruit, seed, floral formula and floral diagram |
| Which family has a tap root system and root nodules? | Fabaceae |
| Which family commonly has alternate compound leaves and stipules? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has a papilionaceous corolla? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has vexillary aestivation? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has diadelphous stamens? | Fabaceae |
| What type of ovary does Fabaceae possess according to the checklist? | Monocarpellary and superior |
| What type of placentation occurs in Fabaceae? | Marginal |
| What is the characteristic fruit of Fabaceae? | Legume |
| Which family includes pea, gram, bean, groundnut and soybean? | Fabaceae |
| What are important economic uses of Fabaceae listed in the checklist? | Food, pulses, oil, fodder, fibre and medicinal or industrial uses where applicable |
| Which family is typically herbaceous or shrubby with a tap root? | Solanaceae |
| What type of leaves does Solanaceae generally possess? | Alternate and simple leaves |
| What type of flowers are characteristic of Solanaceae? | Bisexual, actinomorphic and commonly five-membered |
| What is the calyx of Solanaceae like? | Five, gamosepalous and persistent |
| What is the corolla of Solanaceae like? | Five, gamopetalous |
| How many stamens does Solanaceae have? | Five |
| What is the relationship of Solanaceae stamens to petals? | They are epipetalous |
| What is the gynoecium of Solanaceae like? | Bicarpellary and syncarpous |
| What is the ovary position in Solanaceae? | Superior |
| What is the placentation in Solanaceae? | Axile |
| What fruit types occur in Solanaceae according to the checklist? | Berry or capsule |
| Which plants are examples of Solanaceae? | Tomato, potato, brinjal, tobacco, chilli, petunia and Datura |
| What economic associations are listed for Solanaceae? | Food, vegetables, medicinal uses, ornamental plants and the nicotine or tobacco association |
| Which family is characteristically monocotyledonous? | Liliaceae |
| What type of root system occurs in Liliaceae? | Fibrous or adventitious |
| What type of venation is characteristic of Liliaceae? | Parallel |
| What merosity is characteristic of Liliaceae flowers? | Trimerous |
| What is the perianth of Liliaceae like? | Six tepals arranged in two whorls of three, often petaloid |
| How many stamens are present in Liliaceae? | Six |
| How are the six stamens arranged in Liliaceae? | In two whorls of three |
| What is the gynoecium of Liliaceae like? | Tricarpellary and syncarpous |
| What is the ovary position in Liliaceae? | Superior |
| What is the placentation in Liliaceae? | Axile |
| What fruit types occur in Liliaceae according to the checklist? | Capsule or berry depending on the example |
| Which examples are given for Liliaceae? | Onion, garlic, Aloe, asparagus, lily and tulip |
| Which family is dicot, has tap roots, reticulate venation and zygomorphic flowers? | Fabaceae |
| Which family is dicot, has tap roots, reticulate venation and actinomorphic flowers? | Solanaceae |
| Which family is monocot, has fibrous roots, parallel venation and actinomorphic flowers? | Liliaceae |
| Which family has 10 stamens and diadelphous stamen arrangement? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has five epipetalous stamens? | Solanaceae |
| Which family has six free stamens? | Liliaceae |
| Which family has a single carpel? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has two fused carpels? | Solanaceae |
| Which family has three fused carpels? | Liliaceae |
| Which family has marginal placentation? | Fabaceae |
| Which families have axile placentation? | Solanaceae and Liliaceae |
| Which family has a legume fruit? | Fabaceae |
| Which family commonly has berry or capsule fruits? | Solanaceae |
| Which family commonly has capsule or berry fruits? | Liliaceae |
| How can Fabaceae be distinguished from Solanaceae using flower symmetry? | Fabaceae is zygomorphic, whereas Solanaceae is actinomorphic |
| How can Solanaceae be distinguished from Liliaceae using venation? | Solanaceae has reticulate venation, whereas Liliaceae has parallel venation |
| How can Fabaceae be distinguished from Liliaceae using floral merosity? | Fabaceae has five petals, whereas Liliaceae has six tepals arranged in two whorls of three |
| How can Fabaceae be distinguished from Solanaceae using stamen number? | Fabaceae has 10 stamens, whereas Solanaceae has 5 |
| How can Solanaceae be distinguished from Liliaceae using stamen number? | Solanaceae has 5 stamens, whereas Liliaceae has 6 |
| Which family has vexillary aestivation and papilionaceous corolla? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has epipetalous stamens and a bicarpellary syncarpous ovary? | Solanaceae |
| Which family has six tepals and six stamens? | Liliaceae |
| Which family has a superior ovary and marginal placentation with a legume fruit? | Fabaceae |
| Which family has a superior ovary and axile placentation with five epipetalous stamens? | Solanaceae |
| Which family has a superior ovary, axile placentation and six stamens? | Liliaceae |
| A plant has zygomorphic bisexual flowers, papilionaceous corolla, vexillary aestivation and diadelphous stamens. Identify the family. | Fabaceae |
| A plant has actinomorphic bisexual flowers, five gamosepalous sepals, five gamopetalous petals and five epipetalous stamens. Identify the family. | Solanaceae |
| A plant has trimerous flowers, six tepals, six stamens, a tricarpellary syncarpous gynoecium and parallel venation. Identify the family. | Liliaceae |
| A plant has tap roots with root nodules, compound leaves, papilionaceous corolla and marginal placentation. Identify the family. | Fabaceae |
| A plant has a fibrous root system, parallel venation and six tepals. Identify the family. | Liliaceae |
| A plant has simple alternate leaves, five epipetalous stamens and axile placentation. Identify the family. | Solanaceae |
| Which family comparison is correct for root system: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Liliaceae? | Tap, tap, fibrous respectively |
| Which family comparison is correct for venation: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Liliaceae? | Reticulate, reticulate, parallel respectively |
| Which family comparison is correct for symmetry: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Liliaceae? | Zygomorphic, actinomorphic, actinomorphic respectively |
| Which family comparison is correct for stamen number: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Liliaceae? | 10, 5, 6 respectively |
| Which family comparison is correct for placentation: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Liliaceae? | Marginal, axile, axile respectively |
| Which family comparison is correct for ovary position across all three families? | Superior in Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae |
| Which plant is associated with prop roots? | Banyan |
| Which plant is associated with stilt roots? | Maize |
| Which plant is associated with pneumatophores? | Rhizophora |
| Which plant is associated with a conical storage root? | Carrot |
| Which plant is associated with a fusiform storage root? | Turnip |
| Which plant is associated with an adventitious storage root? | Sweet potato |
| Which plant is associated with a rhizome? | Ginger |
| Which plant is associated with a tuber? | Potato |
| Which plant is associated with a bulb? | Onion |
| Which plant is associated with a corm? | Colocasia |
| Which plant is associated with a runner? | Grass |
| Which plant is associated with an offset? | Pistia |
| Which plant is associated with a stem tendril? | Cucurbita |
| Which plant is associated with a stem thorn? | Citrus |
| Which plant is associated with a phylloclade? | Opuntia |
| Which plant is associated with a leaf tendril? | Pea |
| Which plant is associated with a leaf spine? | Cactus |
| Which plant is associated with an insectivorous pitcher leaf? | Nepenthes |
| Which plant is associated with cyathium? | Euphorbia |
| Which plant is associated with hypanthodium? | Ficus |
| Which plant is associated with verticillaster? | Ocimum |
| Which plant is associated with valvate aestivation? | Calotropis |
| Which plant is associated with twisted aestivation? | China rose |
| Which plant is associated with imbricate aestivation? | Cassia |
| Which plant is associated with vexillary aestivation? | Pea |
| Which plant is associated with marginal placentation? | Pea |
| Which plant is associated with axile placentation? | China rose, tomato or lemon |
| Which plant is associated with parietal placentation? | Mustard or Argemone |
| Which plant is associated with free central placentation? | Dianthus or primrose |
| Which plant is associated with basal placentation? | Sunflower or marigold |
| What is the correct distinction between potato and sweet potato? | Potato is a modified underground stem or tuber, whereas sweet potato is an adventitious storage root |
| What is the correct distinction between a stem tendril and a leaf tendril using the examples in the checklist? | Cucurbita has a stem tendril, whereas pea has a leaf tendril |
| What is the correct distinction between a phylloclade and an insectivorous leaf? | A phylloclade is a modified photosynthetic stem, whereas an insectivorous leaf is a modified leaf involved in nutrient acquisition |
| What is the correct distinction between racemose and cymose inflorescence? | Racemose has an indefinitely growing main axis and acropetal arrangement, whereas cymose has a flower at the end of the main axis and basipetal arrangement |
| What is the correct distinction between acropetal and basipetal arrangement? | Acropetal has older flowers below and younger flowers above; basipetal has older flowers above and younger flowers below |
| Which special inflorescence is associated with Euphorbia? | Cyathium |
| Which special inflorescence is associated with Ficus? | Hypanthodium |
| Which special inflorescence is associated with Ocimum? | Verticillaster |
| Which flower type is radial and which is bilateral: mustard and pea? | Mustard is actinomorphic; pea is zygomorphic |
| Which ovary position is associated with mustard? | Superior ovary and hypogynous condition |
| Which ovary position is associated with guava? | Inferior ovary and epigynous condition |
| Which ovary position is associated with rose? | Perigynous condition |
| Which aestivation is associated with pea? | Vexillary |
| Which aestivation is associated with Calotropis? | Valvate |
| Which aestivation is associated with Cassia? | Imbricate |
| Which aestivation is associated with China rose? | Twisted |
| Which stamen condition is associated with China rose? | Monadelphous |
| Which stamen condition is associated with pea? | Diadelphous |
| Which stamen condition is associated with Citrus? | Polyadelphous |
| Which stamen condition is associated with sunflower? | Syngenesious |
| If carpels are free from one another, what is the gynoecium called? | Apocarpous |
| If carpels are fused, what is the gynoecium called? | Syncarpous |
| If ovules occur along the ventral suture, what placentation is indicated? | Marginal |
| If ovules are attached to the central axis and septa divide the ovary into locules, what placentation is indicated? | Axile |
| If ovules are attached to the inner wall or periphery, what placentation is indicated? | Parietal |
| If ovules occur on a central axis without septa, what placentation is indicated? | Free central |
| If the placenta is at the base of the ovary, what placentation is indicated? | Basal |
| If the ovary is superior and other floral parts occur below it, what condition is indicated? | Hypogynous |
| If the ovary is inferior and other floral parts appear above it, what condition is indicated? | Epigynous |
| If floral parts arise around an apparently central ovary, what condition is indicated? | Perigynous |
| A flower has all four whorls but only one plane can divide it into equal halves. What two classifications apply? | Complete and zygomorphic |
| A flower has both stamens and carpels but lacks sepals. Is it complete or incomplete? | Incomplete |
| A flower contains only stamens. Is it bisexual or unisexual? | Unisexual and staminate |
| A flower contains only gynoecium. What is it called? | Unisexual and pistillate |
| A flower has five floral parts in each whorl. What term describes its merosity? | Pentamerous |
| A flower has three floral parts in each whorl. What term describes its merosity? | Trimerous |
| A seed retains its endosperm at maturity. What type of seed is it? | Albuminous or endospermic |
| A seed has consumed its endosperm during embryo development. What type is it? | Non-albuminous or non-endospermic |
| A mature ovule develops into what? | Seed |
| A mature ovary develops into what? | Fruit |
| A fruit develops without fertilisation. What is it called? | Parthenocarpic fruit |
| A fruit develops from the ovary but other floral structures also contribute. What is it called? | False or accessory fruit |
| A leaf has incisions that do not reach the midrib. Is it simple or compound? | Simple |
| A leaf lamina is divided into leaflets, and each leaflet lacks an axillary bud. Is it simple or compound? | Compound |
| More than two leaves arise from a single node. What type of phyllotaxy is this? | Whorled |
| One leaf occurs at each node. What type of phyllotaxy is this? | Alternate |
| Two leaves occur at each node. What type of phyllotaxy is this? | Opposite |
| Successive leaf pairs occur at right angles. What type is this? | Opposite and decussate |
| Successive leaf pairs occur directly above one another. What type is this? | Opposite and superposed |
| A modified leaf helps a pea climb. What structure is it? | Leaf tendril |
| A modified leaf of cactus provides protection. What structure is it? | Spine |
| A modified leaf traps insects for nitrogen acquisition. What category does it belong to? | Insectivorous leaf |
| A modified stem performs photosynthesis in Opuntia. What is it called? | Phylloclade |
| A modified stem protects the plant in Citrus. What is it called? | Thorn |
| A modified stem helps Cucurbita climb. What is it called? | Tendril |
| A modified underground stem has eyes. Identify it. | Potato tuber |
| A modified underground stem has fleshy scale leaves and a reduced stem. Identify it. | Onion bulb |
| A horizontal underground stem with nodes, scale leaves and adventitious roots is present. Identify it. | Rhizome |
| A root modification arises from branches and supports the plant. Identify it. | Prop root |
| A root modification grows upward in swampy soil and facilitates gaseous exchange. Identify it. | Pneumatophore |
| A root modification develops from lower stem nodes and supports the plant. Identify it. | Stilt root |
| Which chapter section is especially important for diagram-based NEET questions? | Root regions, root systems, root modifications, stem modifications, leaf structure, venation, phyllotaxy, inflorescences, floral whorls, symmetry, aestivation, ovary positions, placentation, seeds and family floral diagrams |
| Which three families must be compared carefully for NEET? | Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae |
| What family has the combination zygomorphic + papilionaceous + vexillary + diadelphous? | Fabaceae |
| What family has the combination actinomorphic + five epipetalous stamens + bicarpellary syncarpous gynoecium + axile placentation? | Solanaceae |
| What family has the combination monocot + trimerous + six tepals + six stamens + parallel venation? | Liliaceae |
| What are the highest-yield morphology matching categories from the checklist? | Root modification → plant, stem modification → plant, leaf modification → plant, inflorescence → plant, aestivation → plant, placentation → plant and family → characteristic |
| What is the most important distinction between a root and a stem when identifying underground structures? | Roots generally lack nodes, internodes and leaves, whereas modified stems possess stem characteristics such as nodes, buds or scale leaves |
| Why is the presence of eyes strong evidence that potato is a stem modification? | Eyes correspond to nodes or buds |
| Why is sweet potato classified as a root modification rather than a stem modification? | It is an adventitious storage root rather than an underground stem |
| What is the most important numerical section of the Breathing chapter? | Respiratory volumes and capacities |
| What are the four basic respiratory volumes? | Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume |
| What are the six major respiratory capacities listed? | Inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, functional residual capacity, vital capacity and total lung capacity, with the volume relationships derived from the four basic volumes |
| Which respiratory value is approximately 500 mL? | Tidal volume |
| Which respiratory volume is approximately 2500 to 3000 mL? | Inspiratory reserve volume |
| Which respiratory volume is approximately 1000 to 1100 mL? | Expiratory reserve volume |
| Which respiratory volume is approximately 1100 to 1200 mL? | Residual volume |
| Which respiratory capacity represents the maximum amount that can be inspired after normal expiration? | Inspiratory capacity |
| Which respiratory capacity represents the maximum amount that can be expired after normal inspiration? | Expiratory capacity |
| Which respiratory capacity represents air remaining after normal expiration? | Functional residual capacity |
| Which respiratory capacity represents maximum air expelled after maximum inspiration? | Vital capacity |
| Which respiratory capacity represents the total air in the lungs after maximum inspiration? | Total lung capacity |
| What is the key gas-exchange rule to remember for both lungs and tissues? | Each gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure |
| What is the major form of oxygen transport? | Oxyhaemoglobin |
| What is the major form of carbon dioxide transport? | Bicarbonate ions |
| Which enzyme is central to bicarbonate formation? | Carbonic anhydrase |
| Which blood cell is central to the bicarbonate transport mechanism described? | Red blood cell |
| What happens when bicarbonate exits the RBC during CO₂ transport? | Chloride enters the RBC to maintain ionic balance |
| Which respiratory centre lies in the medulla? | Respiratory rhythm centre |
| Which respiratory centre lies in the pons? | Pneumotaxic centre |
| Which regulatory region detects changes associated with CO₂ and H⁺? | Chemosensitive area |
| Which respiratory disorders are explicitly named in the checklist? | Asthma, emphysema and occupational respiratory disorders |
| Which disorder is associated with damage to alveolar walls? | Emphysema |
| Which disorder is associated with airway narrowing? | Asthma |
| Which disorders are associated with prolonged exposure to harmful occupational dust or particles? | Occupational respiratory disorders |
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