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Cells
Biology Unit 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Modern cell theory | -the cell is the smallest living unit in all organisms -all living things are made of one or more cells (unicellular or multicellular) -all cells come from other pre-exsisting cells |
| two types of cells & their similarities | -prokaryotes -Eukaryotes BOTH: carry genetic material, have cytoplasm, both have ribosomes (small organelles that make proteins), both have a cell membrane (controls what goes in and out of the cell) |
| prokaryotes | bacteria & archae -they have no nucleus (which holds genetic material & controls the cell's activities) -no membrane-bound organelles -have cell walls -1 micro-meter in length |
| Eukaryotes | plants, animals, fungi, protists -they have membrane-bound organelles -1mm in length |
| plasma membrane | -selectively permeable -exchanges materials with its surroundings (obtains raw materials & disposes of waste products of metabolism) -both types -keeps cell stable (keeping homeostasis) |
| Cytoplasm😀 | -jelly-like material -inside both types -watery solution containing dissolved substances, enzymes, & the cell organelles & structures |
| cytoskeleton | -network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm -organizes cell’s structures, anchors organelles, provides support, keeps it in right shape -in both types -plays a major role in cell movement -organization varies depending on type of cell |
| Ribosomes | -not membrane-bound (in both types) -makes protein by having mRNA feed through it (that's what DNA codes for), then attache to RER, makes protein inside ER, -can be free in the cytoplasm or be attached to another organelle |
| nucleus | -only in the Eukaryotes -holds genetic material such as DNA (both types have DNA) -controls cell's activities -nucleolus inside (where ribosomes are produced) |
| Endoplasmic reticulum | -only in Eukaryotes -folded membrane (increases SA & allows specialization) -attached to membrane of nucleus -transports and finishes proteins & other biological mcs, then sends them off in vesicles |
| Rough ER😀 | (protein producing & transporting) = ribosomes attached to it, transports proteins in vesicles that move to golgi apparatus -synthesizes new membranes -growing in place by adding proteins and phospholipids |
| Golgi apparatus😀 | receives items from vesicles -has enzymes to modify, sort, & package proteins (& hormones) for transport outside -determines where to send mcs (some sent to membrane to be secreted ) -disk-shaped sacks conected w/ the ER -Eukaryote |
| mitochondria😀 | -makes ATP energy in cellular respiration -runs on glucose -more in cell = more metabolically active -needs presence of O2 -Eukaryote only -surrounded by TWO membranes - have DNA |
| chloroplasts😀 | - make glucose using light E (photosynthesis) -green pigment captures light E & reflects green light -they have DNA -in some protists -contain dense stacks of membranes within a fluid (like cytosol) |
| Vacuoles | -storage of water, nutrients, minerals, and cellular products -plant cells have 1 large, permanent one (central vacuole) & animal cells have several, smaller ones -Eukaryote cells |
| Passive transport | -way to move material across cell membrane -diffusion is most common -random movement/spreading of mcs -no E needed - mixing of mcs from area of higher [] to area of lower [] |
| Active transport | - movement of mcs across a membrane from area of low concentration to high concentration using a transport protein (both types) -proteins to move against their gradient |
| osmosis | - diffusion of H2O across selectively permeable memb. -H2O moves from high H2O [] to low water [] until ratio of H2O to solute is = on both sides (equilibrium) -passive transport -water moves to areas of higher solute PARTICLE [] & greater osmotic P |
| facilitated diffusion | -passive transport that requires assistance from membrane transport proteins (used to move material across a semi-permiable membrane to an area of lower []) -ions, larger polar mcs like glucose, can't go through membrane directly |
| Sodium-potassium pump | -primary AT -protein embedded in cell membrane that uses ATP to transport ions AGAINST their [] gradients -has an active site that binds to the Na+, phosphate groups, & K (multiple bonding sites) |
| Primary VS secondary active transport | 1: a transporter uses ATP directly to transport mcs against gradient 2: primary pump creates ion gradient --> ion flows down its gradient --> that E drives another mc uphill (mcs following gradient take another mc w/ them) |
| Endocytosis | -when a cell takes IN macro-molecules by wrapping its cell membrane around it and forming a vesicle -bulk transport |
| Exocytosis | -bulk transport -cell moves sm OUT -vesicle containing material moves to membrane, fuses w/ it, & releases the material -used by secretory cells to export their products |
| What is a gradient in transport? | -a difference in [] between two areas -substances typically move down their [] gradient (high [] to low []) -against a gradient is low [] to high -gas moves down the gradient by diffusion |
| ventilation | -example of passive transport & simple diffusion -more O2 outside the cell in blood & it diffuses into the muscle cell -more CO2 inside the cell = diffuses out of the cell -O2 & CO2 are small NP mcs = go directly through bilayer |
| isotonic | -same solute [] inside & outside cell - no NET movement of H2O (equal rates in both directions) -equilibrium - cell size stays constant EX: red blood cell is surrounded by plasma ([] of both is equal) - semipermeable membrane is cell membrane |
| Hypertonic | -area of higher solute [] -if surrounding liquid is hyper-tonic, water leaves the cell, cell shrinks EX: injecting salt water into blood increases water flow out of the blood cell & it would shrivel up |
| Hypotonic | -area of low solute [] -if surrounding liquid is hypotonic, H2O moves into the cell & it swells (lyse) EX: injecting distilled H2O into blood causes water to move outside blood cells & H2O would flow into the cell & the cell would explode |
| Glucose transport protein (GLUT) | -carrier protein -sits within phospholipid bilayer -high [] of glucose outside the cell -glucose is too large to move through the membrane -glucose bonds w/ the GLUT causing a confirmation change in the GLUT & forcing it across the bilayer |
| Transportation within the lining of ones small intestine😀 | -higher glucose [] in intestine cell (special case) Glucose enters: co-transport brings them into the cell, Na-glucose transporters, secondary active transport Glucose leaves: facilitated diffusion (GLUT), Na uses Na-K pump |
| 😀-phagocyt: white blood cell that moves around & eats invading cells - destroys bacteria - they fold their membrane in to create a phagosome (sphere) containing the pathogens/invaders - | moves to inside of cell & attacjes to lysosome to create a phagolysosome - digestive enzymes pour inside to digest the material making antibodies after it reaches neucleus -type of active transport -Ex of endocytosis (moves membrane against gradient) |
| exocytosis EX: --> nerve signal moving across the synaps (gaps between different neurons) using neurotransmitters (mcs that move across the synaps to start an active potential ont he other side) -releases large neurotransmitters😀 | |
| Cycle of a sodium-potassium pump | - 3 Na+ ions in the cell bind to pump -ATP hydrolysis gives E by transferring a P group to the pump (phosphorylation) --> pump changes shape -3 Na+ pumped out of cell -2 K+ ions bind outside, P comes off, pump changes back -2 K+ pumped into cell |
| diffusion | -particles are [] on one side, particles move randomly but have a net movement from high to low concentration -eventually reaches dynamic equilib -passive transport |
| permeable VS semi-permeable membrane VS selectively permeable membrane | permeable- allows substances to pass freely selectively permeable - allows some substances through but restricts others (plasma membrane) semi permeable - synonym for selectively |
| avioli - tiny air sacks in lungs - meeting place where O2 & CO2 are exchanged😀 capalary beds - tinly blood vessels that surround the alveoli | |
| lyse | an ANIMAL cell breaks open because it takes in too much water |
| simple diffusion | molecules are small enough to move across a cell membrane directly & unassisted -passive transport |
| How do you know if molecules can pass through the cell membrane unassisted ? | pass: hydrophobic (can dissolve in lipid bilayer), gases, SMALL P mcs (like H2O, although aquaporins increase rate) bounce: large P mcs, ions |
| U-tube | shapes like a U w/ a semi-permiable membrane in the middle (H2O can squeeze through but salt/solute mcs can't) |
| Describe how an IV works | -an IV tube runs through a patient's vein so that it can access the bloodstream -if pure H2O were in the tube, water would enter the cell causing it to burst and possibly explode -the tube always contains solutions isotonic to their blood plasma |
| Are saltwater & freshwater fish isotonic to their surroundings? | -not always, they have special adaptions that allow them to live in their environment |
| How does water get into the roots of a plant? | -after rain, the soil is saturated with water -the root hair cells have higher [] of solutes than in the soil -the water travels into the root cells (which are hypertonic compared to the hyptonic soil) |
| Why do the cells in the root hairs of plants not burst when water rushes through them (when the cell becomes turgid AKA full of water)? | -pressure potential (for plants cells, this measures turgor P) -as water enters, membrane pushes outward against cell (creates P opposing water uptake) -cell wall prevents membrane from stretching until it ruptures |
| water potential | - H2O travels to areas w/ ⬇ WP (more mc movement = more WP) -movement of H2O by osmosis WP = pressure potential + solute potential of cell sap -adding solute ⬇ SP (pure H2O = zero) -exerting physical P ⬆ P potential (@ full turgor WP = 0 ) |
| If water moves into PLANT cells due to differences in [], what happens after the cells expand? | -as cells gain water, the water exerts pressure on cell walls from inside the plant cell, raising water potential (tugor pressure) -wall bulges (cell contents press against wall) |
| tugor pressure function | - water mcs in cell collide against inside of membrane creating P -AKA hydrostatic P -cell loses H2O --> loss of turgor --> plant wilts -provides support for the plant body (tightness) |
| How does solute potential effect the overall water potential in a system? | -more solute = more negative -adding solute makes water less free to move/lowers free E -more solute = less movement of water mcs -solute particles bind/interact w/ H2O mcs, leaving fewer H2O available to move freely from solution across membrane |
| What do you use to measure water movement in plant cells and animal cells? | plant: water potential -accounts for physical pressure, which is often caused by the cell wall (turgor P). Osmotic P only describes the effect of solutes Animal: osmotic pressure - no turgor P, |
| plasmolysis😀 | -complete loss of turgor P -is it irreversible (cell can't recover by taking up H2O)???? -H2O moves out (⬇ WP outside) -cell wall is rigid, so membrane shrinks away from wall -wall becomes flaccid (P potential = 0) |
| Be able to label the components of plant and animal cells, know what everything described in here looks like | |
| when does water flow into a plant cell (due to a lower WP inside the cell) stop? 😀 | -H2O uptake stops @ WP = 0 -cell becomes turgid - PP rises, offsetting SP @ full turgor |
| explain the role of pressure potential in generating cell turgor in plants😀 | -TP occurs when H2O enters central vacuole, pushing the plasma membrane out against wall, which pushes back with = P, creating a + PP -increasing water vol creates positive hydrostatic P against wall |
| Channel proteins | -facilitated diffusion -hydrophilic channel through membrane (allows primarily water mcs & ions to move through in larger quantities than by crossing the bi layer directly) |
| carrier proteins | -facilitated diffusion -bind to specific mc, changes shape to move it across, release it, changes back to og shape -change shape to translocate solute-binding site across membrane (moves site where the solute binds to other side) |
| Describe the secondary active transport + co-transport in intestine cells😀 | -Na+/K+ pump creates a lower [] inside the cell -Na+ wants to move into the cell -as Na+ enters, the transporter brings glucose with it |
| secondary active transport | -E of passively moving object can actively move another -E stored in a [] gradient is USED (not transferred) to move another substance against its gradient -does not directly use ATP hydrolysis (uses E stored in ion gradient created by primary AT) |
| co-transport | - method used by 2nd AT -moving 2 mcs tg through same membrane protein EX: SGLT (sodium-glucose linked transporter) -gradient of 1 solute (created by primary AT which changes membrane potential) drives transport of other solute |
| primary active transport | 1. ATP binds w/ transport protein 2. mcs or ion to be transported binds to the transport protein 3. ATP is hydrolyzed & E released transports mc or ion across membrane 4. mcs or ion releases & transport protein reverts to og state |
| How is energy released using ATP😀 | ATP hydrolysis -removing terminal P group (one farthest from ribose) -ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + energy pi = inorganic phosphate -E used for active transport, movement, building muscles -rxn produces products more stable/lower in free E than ATP |
| How is energy stored using ADP😀 | -ADP + phosphate --> ATP + water -the energy from cellular respiration and photosynthesis are used to make ATP -ADP = adenosine diphosphate |
| phosphorylation😀 | how ATP drives endergonic rxns -adding a phosphate group (PO4 3-) to a mc (such as a reactant) making it more reactive or higher in free energy |
| How can ATP hydrolysis power active transport?😀 | 1. phosphorylation 2. binding/change in conformation 3. coupling to an unfavorable rxn |
| Why is transport in a cell necessary? | -move mcs into & out of a cell -move mcs from 1 side of a membrane to another -maintaining their ion []s, taking up nutrients, removing waste |
| -cytoplasm takes H2, puts P on plasma memb. & wall😀 | |
| What happens to the water potential at full turgor?😀 | -SP pulls H2O into cell (-) -PP pushes H2O out (+) -@ full turgor, they cancle out (0) -its like two people of equal strength @ tug of war -no net H2O movement -SP is constant, PP increases (H2O moves until equilibrium/no SP difference) |
| cytolysis | a cell bursts due to too much water uptake -cell contents press against plasma membrane until rupture |
| What is the cytoskeleton comprised of? | Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate filaments |
| Microtubules | -type of cytoskeletal fiber -largest/widest -hallow tubes -made of tubulin (protein) -resists compression (can be stretched tho) -prevents cell from being pushed inward |
| Microfilaments | -type of cytoskeletal fiber -made of actin (protein) -smallest/thinnest -tension bearing (it can be pushed together but not stretched out) -prevents cell from being pushed outward |
| intermediate filaments | -type of cytoskeletal fiber -medium sized -made of keratin (protein) -tension-bearing -more permanent than microfilabments (as cell grows, starts w/ microfilaments & replaces it w/ this) -strong, rope-like fibers made of keratin bundled tg |
| extracellular matrix😀 | -allows cells to form tissues (allows cells to communicate w/ each other & interact) -animal alternative to cell wall |
| motor proteins | -use ATP to move along fibers in cytoskeleton (except intermediatefil.) -purpose: convert chem E from ATP into mechanical movement/force used: motility, intracellular transport (vesticles), reorganize cellular structure -lets cilia & flagella move |
| dynein | “walking” moves flagella and cilia -motor protein that uses ATP for E -generates force by making neighboring microtubules slide relative to each other |
| Flagella😀 | -a tail on a cell that enables it to move around (type of locomotive appendage) -organelle -move back and forth like a fish tail -9 sets of microtubules + 2 in the middle |
| cilia😀 | -type of organelle -moves forward & back like a rowboat -locomotive appendages (natural prolongation that protrudes from body) |
| extracellular matrix function😀 | -supports cells, helps cells attach to surroundings (adhesion), -regulation, sends signals to cells using proteins on membrane -uses/interacts w/ cytoskeleton to pull itself forward (provides surface/anchor for movement) |
| the ___ cell wall is made of ____ | Eukaryote: cellulose (plants) or chitin (fungi) Prokaryote (specifically bacteria): peptidoglycan prokaryote (Archaea): polysaccharides & proteins but lack peptidoglycan |
| motility | ability of cell to move itself from one place to another |
| compartmentalization | organization of a cell into separate, membrane bound compartments large cell = many chem rxns occuring @ once in diff specialized envir without interference -allows specialization & increases SA:V ratio without shrinking cell -Eukaryotic |
| why are cells small? | cell V grows faster than SA (SA : V ratio ⬇) -smaller ratio = less membrane surface per unit of V - not enough membrane area for efficient exchange to support increasing metabolism smaller cell = more membrane relative to interior |
| Why aren't cells infinietly small? | -less space for DNA, organelles & mcs -not enough room for cellular processes -SA: V ratio is high = lose materials too quickly relative to the amount it needs |
| How does the endoplasmic reticulum contribute to compartmentalization? | creates a controlled, membrane-bound space where specific rxns occur -RER: provides space for protein production, folding, modification -SER: space for lipid production, detoxification, calcium storage -ER's membrane separates rns from cytoplasm |
| How does the mitochondria contribute to compartmentalization? | separates cellular respiration into a specialized membrane bound organelles -keeps chemical rxns intended for ATP production separated & organized |
| How does compartmentalization increase surface area? | it increases the amount of membrane available inside the cell without greatly increasing cell volume -it adds compartments separated by membranes inside the cell |
| smooth ER😀 | -detoxifies/metabolizes toxins = abundant in liver cells, synthesizes lipids (steroids), carbohydrate metabolism (chemically process sm using metabolic rxns) -no ribosomes breaks down carbs, stores & egulates Ca+ [] |
| vesticles | cellular packages that pinch off the ER & contain products -transport mcs (RER sends proteins to golgi apparatus) -smooth ER (transports lipids to other parts of cell) -transports proteins (the ones intended to leave the cell) to the cell membrane |
| Why is increased surface area beneficial to cells? | allows more nutrients to enter the cell -allows more chemical reactions to occur on the membrane -increasing the area along which chemical reactions can occur -large surface area-to-volume ratio (more outside versus inside) |
| What controls the beating of cilia and flagella? | -each has a bundle of MICROTUBULES arranged in pattern -dynein attaches to MT & uses ATP to move along an adjacent MT -MT are connected so dynein's movement causes MT bundles to bend, not slide apart -reapeated bending produces beating motion |
| cell wall | maintains cell shape, protects the cell from viruses & bacteria (excludes larger particles), and prevents it from bursting -unique to plants, fungi & bacteria -regulates growth/cell expansion -additional protection |
| peptidoglycan | strong, mesh-like material -network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides (short AA chains) |
| types of extracellular structures | Cell walls of plants The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells Intercellular junctions |
| Intercellular junctions | structures that connect neighboring cells -let cells stick together, communicate, or control what passes between them -4 types: tight junctions (seal), desmosomes (stick/strength), gap junctions (communicate), plasmodesmata |
| What does it mean if a cell synthesizes? | -the cell makes or builds something -(dehydration synthesis is 1 type) |
| What does it mean if a cell secretes materials that are external to the plasma membrane?😀 | cell makes sm & releases it outside the cell -ER --> vesticle --> golgi --> secretory vesicle --> plasma membrane --> releases contents outside through exocytosis |
| Plasmodesmata | -type of intercellular junction in plants special channels that allow communication and transport to occur between cells -channels connecting neighboring cells -allows substances/signals to pass between cells -they pass through plant cell walls |
| tight junctions😀 | -type of intercellular junct. in animals -seals space between cells (cell A - TJ - cell b) -prevent extracellular fluid from leaking between cells -join cells tg in the formation of tissues -forces substance to go through cells, not slip between |
| desmosomes | -intercellular junction in animal cells -AKA anchoring junction -physically anchors cells tg into strong sheets -connects to cytoskeleton in each cell -makes tissue strong enough to withstand pulling/stretching & prevents from being pulled apart |
| gap junctions | -type of intercellular junction in animal cells -AKA communicating junctions -create tiny cytoplasmic channels between neighboring cells allowing ions and small mcs to pass directly from cell to cell -pass through plasma membrane |
| understand how different parts of a cell interact with each other | |
| two layers of plasma membrane | * outside the cell (extracellular) * 1. extracellular layer - out half of phospholipids * hydrophobic interior * 2. cytoplasmic layer - inner half of phospholipids * inside the cell * |
| Role of cholesterol in the plasma membrane | -regulate membrane fluidity & stability -warm temp = restrains phospho. movement (keeps from becoming too fluid) cold temp = prevents phospho from packing too tightly -it also reduces permiability by filling gaps between NP interior of phospho |
| glycolipids | Membrane carbs covalently bonded to lipids -cell membrane mcs -lipids embedded into the plasma membrane while carb chains project into the extracellular space |
| glycoproteins | membrane carbs ( sugars) covalently bonnded to proteins -cell membrane mcs -their protein may be embedded in the membrane while their carb chains project into the extracellular space |
| peripheral protein | proteins bound to the surface of the membrane |
| integral protein | proteins that penetrates the hydrophobic core of the membrane -embedded in the membrane in some way |
| lysosomes😀 | membrane-bound sacks to digest/ recycle -no specialized ones in plants -pinch off the golgi -little interal structure -transport hydrochloric enzymes tp break down (hydrolyze) foreign material/pathogens, damaged cell components, & waste/debris |
| are plant cells or animal cells larger | animal cells tend to be larger - compartmentalization = more space for important rxns & transport = eukaryotes maintain efficient cellular processes even as the cell gets larger, lots of internal membrane |
| surface area of a cell😀 | total area of outer surface that's in contact w/ environ. simple spherical cells = SA is area of plasma membrane |
| volume of a cell | the amount of cytoplasm/cell interior |
| What happens if a cell is too big | V: SA ratio is very small = harder to remove waste efficiently = waste builds up (poisoned) - |
| If the cell is too big and waste builds up, how do cells solve these problems😀 | long/thin folded shaped increase surface area without greatly increasing V -membrane folds increase surface area for exchange -compartmentalization increases the amount of membrane surface inside the cell (adding membranes inside the cell) |
| embedded channels | |
| How does selective permeability help create concentration gradients | |
| how small mcs enter/leave the cell VS large mcs | Small mcs & water enter/leave through lipid bilayer or transport proteins Large mcs (polysaccharides, proteins) use bulk transport |
| cellular respiration def😀 | -E from food into a form the cell can readily use: ATP chemical E in food (like glucose) into ATP (a form of chemical E the cell can use) -some chem E is released as heat rather than ATP ( waste product/byproduct) |
| homeostasis | |
| main components of plasma membrane | 1. phospholipids --> the two layers 2. cholesterol --> regulate membrane fluidity/stability 3. proteins --> transport, signaling, enzymes, etc. 4. carbs --> attached to some lipids/proteins for cell recognition |
| pathway of proteins in a cell | nucelus --> mRNA attaches to ribosome on RER --> ribosome makes protein --> transport vesticle --> Golgi --> secratory vesticle --> plasma membrane (unless it is stored instead of shipped, it would go to the vacuole)--> exocytosis |
| types of membrane transport proteins | 1. channel proteins 2. carrier proteins 3. pumps |
| pumps | -require E input (ATP) -helps maintain a resting membrane potential |
| common mcs/ions that can or can't pass through a semi-permiable membrane & plasma membrane | CAN: O2, CO2, hydrocarbonds, GASES, steroids, water CAN'T: large P mcs, ions |
| components of the extracellular membrane😀 | -network of glycoproteins outside cells such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin -glycolipids? |
| linked ion channels | |
| gated ion channels | |
| mechanical energy | |
| How do cells recognize each other | they bind to surface mcs (often containing carbs) on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane -the uniquie structure of glycolipids & glycoproteins allow cells to recognize each other - |
| How do cells communicate with one another | glycoproteins act as receptors -a signaling mc (like a hormone or neuraltransmitter) binds to the receptor, triggering a responce inside the cell |
| co-receptor | |
| membrane defintion | a collage of different proteins, often grouped together, embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer |
| What determines the membrane's specific functions and why😀 | -proteins |
| transmembrane proteins | Integral proteins that span the phospolipid bilayer -crosses completely from 1 side of the membrane to the other -specific for the substance it moves |
| Six major functions of membrane proteins | |
| transport proteins | -transmembrane proteins -allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane |
| aquaporins | channel proteins that facilitate the passage/diffusion of water across a membrane -alpha helix: their tertiary structure creates a pore through center for mcs to pass |
| fluid mosaic model | states that a membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of various proteins embedded in it |
| What determines the fluidity of the plasma membrane | -phospholipids (& some proteins) move within bilayer laterally cause' lipids are held tg by weak interactions between hydrophobic tails (van der waals, HB, ionic) -lower T =membranes are less fluid (solid state) - saturated fatty acids = less fluid |
| Osmotic pressure😀 | pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a membrane (P needed to stop osmosis) -Less solutes = more water = more P of water to move out (not in) -measured in mOsm (milliomoles) |
| osmole😀 | 1 osmole = 1 mol of particles in 1 L H2O - different mcs/fus dissociate into diff #s of ions (1 mol NaCl in 1 l water = 2 osmoles - (1 mol Na+ & 1 mol Cl-) -1 osmole/L = 1000 milliosmoles (mOsm) -greater osmole/L= greater #/[] of solute particles |
| Shriveled | what leaves an ANIMAL cell causing it to shrivel |
| flaccid | -PLANT cell has less water/turgor pressure -its limp but the membrane is not pulled away from the wall -net movement of water into the cell |
| plasmolyzed | -water leaves the PLANT cell & the cell membrane/cytoplasm pulls away from the cell wall -lethal |
| tonicity | a description/comparison of solute []s between 2 solutions (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic |
| osmoregulation | -the process of keeping the right balance of water & dissolved solutes inside the cell despite changes in the environment -controls how much water and salt it takes in or gets rid of |
| turgid | A plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells until the wall opposes uptake |
| solute potential | potential of water to move by osmosis due to the presence of the solute (always negative) |
| pressure potential | the amount of pressure of water in the cell pushes on the cell membrane and therefore the liquid trying to come in |
| water potential formula | Ψπ = − iCRT i = # of particles the solute produces when it dissolves C = [] in M R = 0.0831 L∙bars/mol∙K T = temp (K) (C + 273.15 = K) |
| dynamic equilibrium | after spreading out in diffusion, the particles bceome evenly distributed so they are still moving randomly in both directions but they move at the same rate (no net movment) |
| Ion channels😀 | -gated channel proteins |
| gated channels😀 | open or close in response to a stimulus |
| resting membrane potential😀 | the difference in electrical voltage inside and outside the cell -most cells are more - inside the cell & more + outside -it can be changed by a stimulus |
| How is resting potential maintained | - |
| result of the sodium-potassium pump😀 | - creates an electrical charge (membrane potential) by putting more K+ inside & more Na+ outside -dirves transport of other mcs through a transport protein (Na+ wants to move back into cell & carries glucose w/ it) |
| [] difference VS electrical difference | chemical gradient VS membrane potential |
| proton pumps | -creates a gradient of H+ ions -drives active transport of nutrients into the cell such as sugars |
| how is glucose transported into cells | there is more Na+ outside your cell (due to pump), so Na+ moves into the cell and carries glucose with it through the sodium-glucose linked transporter (carrier protein) -secondary active transport |
| how is glucose transported out of cells | -high glucose [] inside the cell -moves down its [] gradient through the GLUT into the bloodstream -facilitated diffusion |
| bulk transport | -large mcs cross the membrane via vesicles -requires energy -2 types: exocytosis & endocytosis |
| secretory protein | |
| three types of endocytosis | 1. phagocytosis (“cellular eating”) 2. pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”) 3. receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| phagocytosis😀 | -type of endocytosis |
| pinocytosis😀 | -type of endocytosis |
| receptor-mediated | -type of endocytosis -binding of a ligand to a receptor that triggers vesicle formation (the membrane folds inwards & mcs enters the cell) |
| ligand | any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site (part of a protein/receptor) of another molecule causing a change of shape, triggering a response inside the cell |
| Components of the endomembrane system | Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles Plasma membrane |
| endomembrane system def | group of membrane & organelles in eukaryotic cells that work tg to make, modify, transport, and break down proteins & other materials |
| how the componets of the endomembrane system | 1. continuous (physically connected) -they are literally connected 2. connected by vesticle transfer -organelles are not touching, so materials are transported between them in vesticles |
| membrane sidedness | -asymmetry created when proteins/lipids enter ER & are placed in specific orientations that are maintained by golgi & taken to membrane by vesticle -membrane as 2 faces w/ diff proteins, lipids & carbs (1 faces cytoplasm & 1 faces outside) |
| lumen | space inside (hallow interior) of a membrane-bound structure -ER lumen = space inside the ER -vesticle lumen = space inside the vesticle |
| which organelles are NOT membrane-bound?😀 | DNA (either in the nucleus or free-floating) ribosomes cytoplasm (cytosol) cell membrane |
| pores | it is the opening in a channel protein that allows substances to pass through |
| types of bacteria cells (also be able to identify them) | 1. cocci (spherical/round) 2. Bacilli (rod-shaped) 3. spirilla (spiral-shaped) |
| peptidoglycan | strong material that makes up most bacteria cell walls -sugars + short peptide chains |
| membrane-bound organelles | -an organelle enclosed by a membrane-bound made primarily of lipid layers |
| endosymbiotic theory | mitochondria and chloroplasts may have evolved from ancient bacteria that were engulfed by another cell -they have prokaryote-like history -one organism living in another in a mutually beneficial relationship |
| What characteristics do the mitochondria and chloroplasts have that support endosymbiotic theory 😀 | 1. they each have 2 membranes (an inner and outer) 2. they have their own DNA 3. each have an internal, fluid filled region (matrix in mitocondria & stroma in chloroplasts) 4. their own ribosomes (they can make some of their own proteins) |
| function of glycolipids | cell recognition - helps cells identify other cells - carbs stick out like ID tags -cell-to-cell interactions/adhesion (helps cell attach to other cells or surfaces) -helps stabilize & protect the membrane (form a protective carb coating - glycocalyx) |
| function of glycoproteins | -CELL SIGNALING: communicate w/ each other (act as receptors that receive signals) -cell-to-cell interactions/adhesion (helps cell attach to other cells or surfaces) -stabilize/protect membrane -cell recognition |
| crenated | the shriveling and wrinkling of an ANIMAL cell that happens when water leaves the cell through osmosis in a salty environment |
| neuron def🥰 | a nerve cell that transfers info within the body by receiving, processing, and transmitting electrical signals in the nervous system |
| components of a neuron | dendrites --> cell body --> axon --> axon terminals --> next cell |
| dendrites | -receive signals from other neurons & carries them towards the cell body -sensory receptors -branched part of a neuron |
| cell body | -AKA soma -main part of the neuron that contains the nucleus & processes incoming signals |
| axon | -long slender part of neuron that carries electrical signals (action potentials) away form the cell body towards the axon terminals |
| axon terminals | the end of an axon that releases neurortansitters (chemical messengers) to communicate with the next neuron |
| synaptic cleft | |
| neurotransmitter | -type of ligand -binds to ligand-gated ion channel in a neuron |
| What is the resting potential | each neuron has a difference in charge/ion [] across its membrane -Na+ on the outside nad K+ on the inside -Na-K pump maintains these gradients |
| How does the membrane potential of a neuron change | -nurotransmitter binds to a ligand-gated channel on the neuron -channel opens & ions move by facilitated diffusion |
| depolarization of a neuron | -membrane reaches the threshold, so valtage-gated Na+ channels open -Na+ rushes in & neuron becomes + -membrane P rises to +40 mV -this is the rising part of the action potential |
| repolarization of a neuron | Na+ channels close -voltage gated K+ channels open -k+ leaves the cell & inside becomes neg |
| hyperpolarization | K+ channels stay open slightly too long, so the membrane becomes more negative then the resting potential |
| return to resting potential | ion movement/pump restores normal gradient -neuron is ready to fire another action potential |
| Why do neurons have a nucleus | provides instructions the neuron needs to maintain itself, produce neural transmitters |
| action potential | -a rapid change in a neuron's membrane potential that travels down the axon as an electrical signal |
| explain how depolarization starts and spreads along the axon | 1. lligand/neuraltransmitter binds to receptor 2. changes MP 3. reaches threshhold, AP begins 4. 1 section of axon depolarizes, casuing next section to reach threshhold 5. next section depolarizes & triggers next one 6. continues until axon terminal |
| threshold | minimum membrane potential a neuron must reach to trigger an a action potential -usually around -55V -trigger pt - it either shoots or does not - there is no half action potential -once reached, voltage-gated ion channels open (causes depolarization) |
| what triggers the action potential | -when the neuron reaches threshold -neurotransmitter binds to receptor , ion channel opens, ions move across membrane, membrane becomes less neg,, reaches threshold |
| ligand-gated channels | a membrane protein that opens or closes when a specific ligand (usually a neuraltransmitter binds to it) -allow Na+ to enter the cell |
| voltage-gated channels | -membrane channels that open/close in response to change in a neuron's MP (voltage) -open after threshold is reached to trigger depolarization -lots of Na+ enters creating AP - voltage-gated K+ channels open & K+ leaves to repolarize |
| REMINDER: for osmosis , count the solute particle [], not just the M, USE OSMOLES | |
| formula for osmoles | molarity times i -units osm |
| stroma | the fluid-filled regions surrounding/between the membranes in a chloroplast -where the Calvin cycle takes place |
| shape of animal cells VS plant cells | -no regular shape -alter their shape for various purposes (like engulfing foreign material) -plants have a cell wall keeping them in a rigid stucture (no mobile phogocytic cells) |
| phagocytes | |
| nucleolus😀 | a dense, solid structure composed of crystaline protein and nucleic acid -involved in ribosome synthesis |
| nuclear pore😀 | a hole in the nuclear membrane allowing the nucleus to communicate with the rest of the cell |
| nuclear membrane😀 | double layered structure enclosing the nucleus |
| centrioles😀 | structures within a centrosome associated with nuclear division -composed microtubules -appear as small, featurless particles -absent in higher plant cells and some protists |
| Organelles present in animal cells only😀 | -lysosomes |
| organelles present in plant cells only😀 | -large central vacuole -chloroplast -cell wall |
| traverse section | a cut across the object, usually perpendicular to its axis (cutting a carrot into round slices) ------l----- |
| longitudinal section | a cut along the length of the object, usually parallel to its long axis (longer, larger looking slice of a carrot) |
| starch granule😀 | carb stored in amyloplasts (specialized storage organelles) -store the starch produced during photosynthesis |
| plastids def 😀 | double membraned organelles |
| plastids examples 😀 | chloroplasts anyloplasts |
| middle lamella😀 | 1st layer of the cell wall formed during cell division -contains pectin and protein -provides stability -allows cell to form plasmodesmata |
| tonoplast😀 | membrane that surrounds the vacuole |
| What cell takes up the majority of space in the plant cell? | the large central vacuole |
| What increases the rate of diffusion😀 | 1. greater difference between 2 regions in [] gradient 2. shorter distances between regions 3. larger surface area 4. thinner barriers 5. high temperatures 6. more NP mcs 7. lower desity of solvent |
| neural transmitters VS hormones | |
| compartments/processes in an animal cell😀 | 1. containment of damaging oxidative rxns 2. cellular respiration 3. secretion 4. protein synthesis 5. transport in and out of the cell 6. cell division 7. autolysis 8. cytosis |
| protein synthesis (compartmentalization) | -proteins that are going to be secreted or inserted into membranes are made by ribosomes attached to the RER -the ER provides a compartment where newly made proteins can be folded, modified & transpoted |
| plastids | |
| chromosomes | |
| cellular respiration (compartmentalization) | the mitochondria are compartments specialized for cellular respiration -extracing E from glucose to produce ATP |
| autolysis (compartmentalization) | cell breaks down its own componet using its own enzymes (digestive enzymes in the lysosomes) -break down cellular waste, old cell components, mcs taken into the cell -lysosome prevents free-floating enzymes from breaking down things the cell needs |
| secretion (compartmentalization) | -send substances outside the cell (proteins/signaling mcs) -GOLGI APPARATUS processes & packages these mcs into vesticles -vesticles move to the plasma membrane & release contents (exocytosis) |
| cytosis (compartmentalization) | -process where cells move materials using vesticles -exocytosis/endocytosis -plasma membrane bends inward or outward to move vesticles |
| transport within the cell (compartmentalization) | cell needs to move materials from 1 place to another -membrane-bound vesicles act somewhat like little delivery packages |
| cell division (compartmentalization)😀 | cell divides & produces new cells (for eukaryotic cell, process is mitosis followed by cytokinesis) DNA is distributed to daughter cells (nucleus) centrosomes (organize spindle in animal cells) microtubules (attach to chromosomes & separate them) |
| Photosynthesis | -chloroplasts -capture light E & convert it to useful chemical energy (as sugars) |
| How does a membrane for an organelle (compartmentalization) control the rxns/processes | -separate regions for specific rxns (specific enzymes in particular organelles) -controls rate that substates enter organelle (controls availability of raw materials required for rxn) -specific chemical environ. -rxns don't interfere w/ each other |
| nuclear envelope😀 | -DOUBLE membrane surrounding the nucleus (inner & outer) -inner membrane is highly folded forms a separate compartment containing the cell's genetic material |
| autolysis | |
| How does compartmentalization enable the evolution of larger cells | -larger cells have smaller SA:V ratio (exchange w/ environ. less efficient) -organizes cellular processes so larger cells function efficiently despite this limitation |
| How does changing the concentration gradient impact the rate of diffusion | greater difference between [] of two areas = faster diffusion -more mcs = higher chance that the mcs will collide with membrane and a lower chance that mcs in the least [] side collides w/ membrane (greater net diffusion in 1 direction) |
| how does distance affect the concentration gradient | diffusion over a shorter difference occurs faster than over a large distance |
| rate of diffusion | more mcs are moving from the high [] region to the lower [] region per unit time -mcs aren't moving faster, there is just a net movement across each second |
| how does the membrane or barrier affect the rate of diffusion | thicker barriers have a slower rate of diffusion than thin barriers -mcs have to travel further through the barrier to get through (fewer mcs can cross per unit time) |
| how does solubility affect the rate of diffusion | lipid-soluble or non-polar mcs pass across membranes more easily than polar materials, so their rates of diffusion are faster -NP can more easily pass through the hydrophobic interior of the bilyar |
| How does solvent density affect the rate of diffusion | as the density of a solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases -more H2O = mcs can move more freely EX: cellular dehydration (cytoplasm becomes more concentrated/crowded) = mcs have more difficulty moving & slower diffusion |
| Why is a smaller SA:V ratio not ideal | -larger cells need more material -mcs need to travel further to reach their destination within the cell -diffusion is not as effective -less efficient exchange of materials |
| area of a circle | pi r² |
| volume of a sphere | 4/3 pi r³ |
| SA of a sphere | 4 pi r² -remember to use radius NOT diameter |
| surface area of a cylinder | (2pi r²) + (2 pi r h) |
| Why do cells deviate from the typical spherical shape | -larger cell diameter =further distance from membrane to cellś center - raw materials are used up faster than supplied & might not reach cell's center -But, reducing diameter along 1 axis or elongating it along another ⬆ SA without effecting V |
| different cell shapes | sphere long cylinder disc shaped cylinder (looks like frisbee) |
| aerobic cellular respiration | -specific type of cellular respiration -E extracting using O2 as the final electron acceptor -glucose + O2 --> h2O + ATP |
| What is the controlling factor effecting how big an individual cells can become | diffusion -diffusion can become too slow when a cell becomes too large (more cytoplasm needs nutrients but not enough membrane surface to bring those materials in) -mcs must diffuse further to reach where they're needed |
| explain the difference between the SA:V ratio of single celled organisms VS multicellular organisms | single-cell: -small -large SA:V ratio -cell's requirements met by diffusion/active transport multi: -large -small ratio -require specialized body systems (compartmentalization) & surface foldings to exchange materials in cells/tissues in body |
| how can the structure of tissues in animal cells increase SA | - folding & projections (part of structure that sticks out from main surface) EX: intestinal tissue -intestinal projections called villi which are made of epithelial cells whose membrane has microvilli -each level adds more SA |
| villi | -larger-tissue level, finger-like projection (made of many cells) that line the small intestine -they increase SA |
| microvilli | tiny extensions/projections of the inside-facing outwards of the epithelial cell membranes -part of intestinal cell's membrane |
| epithelial cells | cells that make up epithelial tissue (covers surfaces and lines space in the body - skin, digestive track, small intestine) |
| two types of folded structure in membrane proteins | alpha helix: beta pleated sheet |
| GLUT1 | type of glut -carrier protein -glucose across membrane of mammalian cells (cell from mammal) -alpha helx structure |
| G-protein | protein involved in signaling pathways -G protein coupled receptors outside cell recieve signals (signal mcs binds to receptor changing its shape), G activated by receptor & passes message along, rxn intracellular response -both beta & alpha |
| How do temperature and solvents affect the structure of cellular membranes | -if membranes are subjected to T higher than their optimum, membrane proteins become denatured -alchohols = denatures proteins & !dissolves lipids! -membrane loses selective permeability & becomes leaky |
| structure of plant cell walls😀 | hemicellulose links the cellulose into a matrix which is embedded with pectin (an acidic polysaccaride) & acidic polysaccharide |
| structure of bacteria cell walls😀 | 2 major groups: Gram-positive & gram-negative |
| gram-positive😀 | -thick layer of peptidoglycan -no outer membrane -gram stain: purple -retains crystal violet |
| gram-negative😀 | -thin peptidoglycan layer sandwiched between an inner (plasma) & outer membrane -gram stain: pink/red -loses crystal violet during decolorization |
| virulence😀 | |
| crystal violet😀 | -1st stain used in a Gram stain -both pos & neg have negative bacteria, so both initially turn purple. Then alcohol/acetone decolorizer |
| How does SA impact the rate of diffusion | larger surface area increases the amount onions or mcs that can cross at one times, increasing the net movement of ions & increasing the rate of diffusion |
| protists | |
| how does chloroplasts work?😀 | -highly organized internal membrane system -light-capturing pigment is embedded inside the membranes (absorb light of specific wavelengths) -Chlorophil absorbs light, energizing e-s & uses E to make ATP & NADPH -ATP & NADPH are used in Calvin cycle |
| How does the mitochondria work?😀 | ???? -contain protein (like ATP synthase) involved in the production of ATP |
| Electron transport chain (ETC)😀 | -series of proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane -uses E from e- carried by NADH & fADH2 to pump H+ into the intermembrane space -H+ then flows through ATP synthase & ATP is produced |
| ATP synthase😀 | -catalyses ATP synthesis in the mitochondria |
| cristae😀 | inward folding in the mitochondia -increases the SA of the inner membrane so more ATP synthase & e- transport chains can fit to make E |
| -small, circular piece of DNA usually found in bacteria -small, extra DNA ring in addition to their bacterial chromosome -provides antibiotic resistance & bacteria can exchange plasmids w/ one another | |
| How is ATP synthesis driven in the mitochondria | - difference in H+ [] on sides of inner membrane -ETC uses E from e- to pump H+ from matrix -creates high [] in intermembrane space & low [] in matrix -H+ flows down through ATP synthase (membrane protein) -provides E to attach P to ADP |
| Which is smaller, the mitochondria or chloroplast | mitochondria |
| matrix (not the extra cellular matrix)😀 | fluid-filled space within the inner membrane in a mitocondria -it is where the krebs cycle occurs |
| Krebs cycle | -mitochondria (matrix) -takes C containing products of food breakdown & captures their E in e- carriers -makes NADH & FADH2s that carry high E e- to the e- transport chain -part of cellular respiration where photosynthesis occurs |
| purpose of the inner membrane of a mitochondria 😀 | creates a barrier to separate the matrix from the intermembrane space allowing a proton gradient to form |
| How do cells use ATP? to contract?😀 | |
| 4 main pieces used in endosymbiotic theory | |
| calvin cycle | light-independent rxns in photosynthesis that use ATP to convert CO2 into glucose/carbs - occurs in stroma -takes CO2 (inorganic C) & ATP & NADPH to make G3P (building block to make carbs - C compounds) -take C from CO2 & put it into organic C mc |
| stages of photosynthesis | 1. light-dependent reactions 2. calvin cycle - stroma |
| photosynthesis | light --> light dependent rxns --> ATP + NADPH --> calvin cycle --> G3P --> glucose/carbs |
| light dependent rxns in photosynthesis | -within the membranes light E from the sun is used to make APT & NADPH -it splits water and releases O2 |
| NADPH | a mcs that stores & transports high-E e- -light rxns make it & the calvin cycle usesthose e- |
| gana | stacks of thylakoids in chloroplasts -creates a large surface area for light absorption |
| thylakoid membranes | membranes in chloroplasts that are the site of light absorption & provide a large surface area, organized so as not to shade each other -contain many proteins that are involved in capturing light and converting that light E into chem E |
| how does the position of chlorophyll maximize absorption | it runs parallel to the cell wall to maximize the surface area available for light absorption |
| where is chlorophyll found in chloroplasts | in the thyroidal membranes |
| stroma lamelle | |
| difference between the stroma and thylakoid membranes |
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Blessed Rectangle 11