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Research Methods
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cultural Norms | shared expectations or rules for behavior within a group or society; they guide how people should act in specific contexts |
| Confirmation Bias | The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses |
| Hindsight Bias | The tendency to see past events as more predictable than they actually were; the "I knew it all along" effect |
| Overconfidence | The tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of one's beliefs or judgments than is objectively warranted |
| Experimental Methodologies | Research Methods where the researcher manipulates an independent variable and observes its effect on a dependent variable while controlling for confounding variables |
| Non-Experimental Methodologies | Research methods that describe or correlate variables without manipulating an independent variable (e.g., surveys, case studies, correlational studies) |
| Case Study | An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event; provides rich descriptive data but limited generalizability |
| Correlation | A statistical relationship between two variables; describes how they co-vary but does not imply causation |
| Meta-Analysis | A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies to draw overall conclusions about a research topic |
| Naturalistic Observation | A research method where behavior is observed and recorded in its natural setting without manipulation or control by the researcher |
| Hypothesis | A testable prediction about the relationship between variables; an educated guess based on existing knowledge or theory |
| Falsifiable | A statement or hypothesis that can potentially be proven false through empirical testing or evidence |
| Operational Definitions | Specific, measurable definitions of variables that describe exactly how they will be measured or manipulated in a study |
| Replication | Repeating a study using the same procedures to verify whether the original findings can be reproduced |
| Independent Variable(s) | The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on other variables |
| Dependent Variable(s) | The variable that is measured as the outcome; it is hypothesized to depend on or be affected by the independent variable |
| Confounding Variable(s) | An uncontrolled variable that could influence the dependent variable and create alternative explanations for the results |
| Participants | The individuals who take part in a research study |
| Sample | A subset of a population selected to participate in a study |
| Population | The entire group of individuals or cases that a researcher is interested in studying |
| Representative Sample | A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population from which it was drawn |
| Random Sampling | A sampling method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected |
| Convenience Sampling | A non-random Sampling method where participants are selected based on their availability and ease of access |
| Sampling Bias | A systematic error that occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the population, often due to non-random selection methods |
| Generalizability | The extent to which research findings from a sample can be applied to the broader population or other contexts |
| Experimental Group | The group of participants that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable |
| Control Group | The group of participants that does not receive the treatment; used as a baseline for comparison |
| Placebo | A fake treatment or inert substance given to control group participants so they believe they are receiving the real treatment |
| Single-Blind | A study where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group, but researchers do know |
| Double-Blind | A study where neither participants nor researchers know which group participants are in, reducing experimenter and participant bias |
| Experimenter Bias | The tendency of researchers to influence study results based on their expectations or beliefs about the hypothesis |
| Social Desirability Bias | The tendency of participants to respond in ways they believe are socially acceptable rather than honestly |
| Qualitative Measurement Instruments | Tools used to collect non-numerical, descriptive date (e.g., open-ended interviews, observations) |
| Structured Interviews | Interviews using a standardized set of questions asked in the same order to all participants for consistency |
| Quantitative Measurement Instruments | Tools used to collect numerical data that can be analyzed statistically (e.g., surveys, tests, rating scales) |
| Likert Scales | Rating scales that ask respondents to indicate their level of agreement with statements (e.g., strongly disagree to strongly agree) |
| Appropriate Representation of Participants | Ensuring that the study sample includes participants from diverse backgrounds to accurately represent the population being studied |
| Peer Review | A process where other experts evaluate research before publication to ensure quality, Validity, and adherence to standards |
| Variables (non-experimental) | Variables that are measured or observed but not manipulated by the researcher |
| Directionality Problem (correlation) | The inability to determine which variable causes changes in the other when two variables are correlated |
| Third Variable Problem (correlation) | When a third unmeasured variable causes changes in both correlated variables, creating a spurious relationship |
| Survey | A research method where participants respond to a set of standardized questions, often used to gather information about attitudes or behaviors |
| Wording Effects | Changes in survey responses due to how questions are phrased or worded rather than actual differences in opinions |
| Self-Reporting Bias | The tendency of participants to inaccurately report their own behaviors, thoughts, or feelings |
| Institutional Review | The process where an Institutional Review Board (IRB) evaluates research proposals for ethical compliance before studies begin |
| Informed Consent | The agreement to participate in research after being fully informed about the study's procedures, risks, and benefits |
| Informed Assent | Agreement to participate given by minors or those unable to give legal consent; obtained along with parental/guardian consent |
| Protection from Harm | An ethical principle ensuring that research participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm |
| Confidentiality | The ethical obligation to keep participants' identities and date private and secure |
| Deception | Withholding information from participants about the true nature of a study; must be justified and followed by debriefing |
| Research Confederates | Individuals who pose as participants but are actually working with the researcher to manipulate the study environment |
| Debriefing | A post-study conversation where researchers explain the true purpose of the study and address any questions or concerns participants have |
| Central Tendency | A statistical measure that describes the typical or central value in a dataset (mean, median, or mode) |
| Mean | The average of all values in a dataset; calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values |
| Median | The middle value in a dataset when values are arranged in order; useful for skewed distributions |
| Mode | The value that appears most frequently in a dataset |
| Range | The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset; a simple measure of spread |
| Normal Curve | A bell-shaped distribution where most values cluster around the mean and tail off symmetrically on both sides |
| Skewness in a Graph | The asymmetry of a distribution; positive skew has a tail extending to the right, negative skew to the left |
| Bimodal Distribution | A dataset with two modes (two peaks) rather than one |
| Percentile Rank | The percentage of scores that fall below a given score in a distribution |
| Regression Toward the Mean | The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the average upon retesting or in subsequent measurements |
| Variation | The degree to which scores in a dataset differ from each other; a measure of spread or dispersion |
| Standard Deviation | A measure of how spread out data is from the mean; indicates the average distance of values from the mean |
| Quantitative Inferential Data | Numerical data analyzed using statistics to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data |
| Qualitative Inferential Data | Non-numerical data (text, observations) analyzed to identify patterns and draw conclusions about broader phenomena |
| Scatterplot | A Graph showing the relationship between two variables by plotting points where each point represents a pair of values |
| Correlation Coefficient | A numerical value (typically ranging from -1 to +1) that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables |
| Effects sizes | Measures of the magnitude or practical significance of a research finding, independent of sample size |
| Statistical Significance | A determination that research results are unlikely to have occurred by chance; typically indicated by a p-value less than .05 |
Created by:
lilli.spears1