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Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Behavior | An individual living organisms activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation |
| Behavior Analysis | A natural science that seeks to accurately predict behavior & identify functional variables that can be used to positively influence behavior. |
| Consequence | An observable stimulus change that happens after behavior occurs. |
| Contingency | A relation between operant behavior and its controlling variables. |
| Environmental Events | All of the things you experience through your senses (tastes, smells, sights, sounds, tactile sensations). |
| Functional Variable | A variable that, if changed, will reliably and systematically influence behavior. |
| Response | A single instance of behavior. |
| Determinism | The assumption that the universe is a lawful and orderly place in which phenomena occur in relation to other events and not in a willy-nilly, accidental fashion. |
| Mentalistic explanations of behavior | These “explanations” put the cause of behavior in the individual’s vaguely defined “mind.” |
| Stimulus (Stimulus events) | Something that you can see, hear, smell, taste, or feel. |
| Parsimony | An approach to scientific explanation that emphasizes simplicity and reliance on well-established knowledge |
| Independent variable | A publicly observable change, controlled by the experimenter, which is anticipated to influence behavior in a specific way. |
| Behavioral definition | A precise specification of the target behavior, allowing observers to reliably identify instances and non-instances. |
| Dimensions of Behavior | This includes frequency, latency, duration, and magnitude. |
| Falsifiable hypothesis | A testable explanation for a phenomenon that can be proven wrong by empirical observation or experiment. |
| Dependent variable | In a behavior-analytic experiment, this is the objectively measured target behavior. |
| Direct observation | When behavior is directly observed, the behavior is recorded as the behavior occurs, or a lasting product of the behavior is recorded at a later time. |
| Duration | A dimension of behavior – the interval of time between the start and the end of the behavior. |
| Duration recording | A direct-observation method used when measuring the latency or duration of a target behavior. |
| Event recording | Each instance of behavior is recorded at the moment it occurs. |
| Frequency | A dimension of behavior – the response count divided by time (response rate) or opportunity to respond. |
| Interobserver agreement (IOA) | The extent to which two independent observers’ data are the same after having directly observed the same behavior at the same time. |
| Latency | A dimension of behavior – the interval of time between the opportunity to respond and the response itself. |
| Magnitude | A dimension of behavior – the force or intensity of a behavior. |
| Outcome recording | Recording the distinct, observable, lasting product(s) of behavior, instead of the behavior itself. |
| Partial-interval recording | A direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether the behavior occurs during any portion of each in a series of contiguous intervals. |
| Reactivity | Behavior changes because the individual is aware that they are being watched. |
| Whole-interval recording | A direct-observation method used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs. Observers record whether the behavior occurs throughout each in a series of contiguous intervals. |
| A-B-A-B design | Experimental design, 4 phases to test an intervention: establish steady baseline w/o treatment (A), apply the intervention until behavior changes (B), withdrawing to see if behavior returns to baseline (A), reapplying to confirm the original effects (B). |
| A-B design | A two-phase experimental design consisting of a pretreatment baseline condition (A) followed by a treatment condition (B). |
| Alternating-treatments design (AKA Multielement design) | In this single-subject design, the independent variable(s) is turned ON and OFF rapidly to evaluate if this systematically and repeatedly changes behavior. |
| Between-individuals replication | When a between-individuals replication is conducted, the experiment is repeated with additional subjects and the same result is obtained. |
| Comparison design | This single-subject design arranges two phases – a baseline phase (independent variable OFF) and an experimental phase (independent variable ON). This design cannot rule out confounds. |
| Confound | Variables that influence behavior within an experiment, but are not controlled by the researcher. Variables confounded with the independent variable may be responsible for a behavior change that would otherwise be attributed to the independent variable. |
| Experiment | In behavior analysis, experiments evaluate falsifiable hypotheses. They do this by manipulating an independent variable to see if this reliably produces a systematic change in behavior. |
| Group experimental designs | These designs evaluate if the behavior of a treatment group (independent variable ON) is statistically significantly different from that of a control group (independent variable OFF). If so, then the difference is attributed to the independent variable. |
| Internal validity | When an experiment provides clear evidence that a functional relation exists between the independent variable and behavior change, that experiment has internal validity. |
| Interval recording | A category of direct-observation methods. See partial-interval recording and whole-interval recording. |
| Level | The prevalence of the behavior during the stable portion of a phase/condition. |
| Multiple-baseline design | A single-subject design that evaluates the functional relation between an independent variable and behavior by conducting a series of time-staggered A-B comparisons either across behaviors, across situations, or across individuals. |
| Reversal design | A single-subject experimental design in which the individual’s behavior is evaluated in repeatedly alternating baseline and experimental phases. |
| Single-subject experimental designs | Sometimes called “single-case” experiments, these designs expose individuals to baseline (independent variable OFF) and experimental (independent variable ON) phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior. |
| Stable (stable behavior) | Behavior is stable when, over repeated observations, there is little “bounce” and no systematic trend. |
| Trend | A systematic change in behavior over time. |
| Visual analysis | 1 approach to answering - did behavior change when the IV was changed? In the visual analysis, the researcher looks at a graph of time-series single-subject behavior to evaluate if a convincing change occurred when the IV was introduced/removed. |
| Within-individuals replications | In an experiment, the independent variable is manipulated more than once and it produces the same effect on the individual’s behavior each time. |
| Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning) | When a neutral stimulus reliably precedes the onset of a US that elicits a pleasant emotion (the UR), that stimulus can come to function as a CS evoking a CR |
| Conditioned Response (CR) | A learned response elicited by the presentation of a conditioned stimulus. |
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) | A stimulus that has acquired its eliciting properties through previous pairing with another stimulus. |
| Unconditioned Response (UR) | An unlearned response elicited by an unconditoned sitmulus. |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | A stimulus that produces the UR without previous pairing with another stimulus. |
| Elicit | When a specific stimulus occasions a specific reflex response, we say that the stimulus elicits the response. |
| Evoke | When a specific stimulus increases the probability of a specific ontogenetic response. |
| Generalization (Pavlovian) | When a novel stimulus resembling the CS evokes the response, despite no prior experience with the novel stimulus signaling a delay reduction to the US. |
| Generalization gradient | A graph depicting increases in responding as the novel antecedent stimulus more closely resembles the SD. |
| Graduated exposure therapy | Pavlovian extinction-based therapy - a client suffering from a phobia is gradually exposed to successively stronger approximations of the CS. Before each new CS is presented, steps are taken to reduce a fear evoked by the prior CS approximation. |
| Habituation | Gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus. |
| Neutral stimulus | A stimulus that has no behavioral function. For example, it neither elicits nor evokes the response of interest. |
| Pavlovian extinction | The procedure of repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US), the effect of which is a reduction or elimination of the CS’s ability to evoke the conditioned response (CR). |
| Pavlovian generalization | Conditioned responding to a novel stimulus that resembles the conditioned response (CS). |
| Phylogeny | The history of the natural evolution of a species. |
| Phylogenetic (Phylogenic) behavior | Behavior that is inherited genetically. |
| Spontaneous recovery | An increase in conditioned responding following the passage of time since Pavlovian extinction. |
| Ontogeny | The history of the development of an individual organism during its lifetime. |
| Ontogenic (ontogenetic) behavior | Learned behavior that results from an organism’s interaction with his/her environment. |
| Noncontingent consequence | A consequence occurring after the response, but not because the response caused it to occur. |
| Operant behavior (instrumental behavior) | A generic class of responses influenced by antecedents, with each response in the class producing the same consequence. |
| Reinforcement | The process or procedure by which a reinforcer increases operant behavior above its baseline level. |
| Reinforcer | A consequence that increases operant behavior above its baseline level. |
| Response–consequence contingency | Describes the causal (IF → THEN) relation between an operant behavior and its consequence. |
| Rewards | Beneficial consequences that we think will function as reinforcers, but we don’t know yet if they will. |
| Superstitious behavior | Occurs when the individual behaves as though a response–consequence contingency exists when, in fact, the relation between response and consequence is noncontingent. |
| Antecedent | an observable stimulus that is present before the behavior occurs. |
| Response variability | Natural differences, fluctuations, or lack of uniformity in the form, topographies, or dimensions of a behavior each time it's performed. |
| Avoidance Behavior | Negatively reinforced operant behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus from happening. |
| Extrinsic reinforcers | A psychological concept. An extrinsic reinforcer is a reinforcer that is not automatically obtained by engaging in the behavior. Instead, these reinforcers are artificially arranged. |
| Negative reinforcement | The removal/reduction/prevention of a stimulus that leads to an increase in the likelihood of an operant behavior. |
| Negative reinforcement – avoidance (SRA-) | A consequent prevention of a stimulus change, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level. |
| Negative reinforcement – escape (SRE-) | A consequent removal or reduction of a stimulus, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level. |
| Positive reinforcement | The presentation of a consequence, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level. |
| Two-factor theory | Two-factor theory relies on two learning processes (two factors): Pavlovian and operant conditioning. |
| Explanatory fiction | A fictitious or hypothetical variable that often takes the form of another name for the observed phenomenon it claims to explain and contributes nothing to a functional account or understanding of the phenomenon. |
| Automatic Reinforcer | A consequence that is directly produced by the response – it is not provided by someone else – and that increases the behavior above a no-reinforcer baseline. |
| Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) | DR procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished while a different (alternative) response is reinforced. |
| Differential reinforcement of high-rate behavior (DRH) | DR procedure in which responding at a rate below a specified threshold is extinguished and responding at a rate above that threshold is reinforced. |
| Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) | DR procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished while a different response – one that cannot be emitted while engaged in the problem behavior – is reinforced. |
| Differential reinforcement of low-rate behavior (DRL) | DR procedure in which responding at a rate above a specified threshold is extinguished and responding at a rate below that threshold is reinforced. |
| Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) | DR procedure in which the problem behavior is extinguished and abstaining from this behavior for a specified interval of time is reinforced. |
| Differential reinforcement of variability | DR procedure in which repetition is extinguished and novel responding is reinforced. |
| Escape extinction | Responding that meets the negative reinforcement contingency no longer removes or reduces the aversive event. As a result, responding falls to baseline (no-reinforcer) levels. |
| Extinction burst | Temporary increase in the rate, magnitude, or duration of the previously reinforced response. |
| Extinction-induced emotional behavior | A temporary increase in negative emotions following a transition from positive reinforcement to operant extinction. |
| Extinction-induced resurgence | When one operant behavior is extinguished, other behaviors that were previously reinforced are emitted again. |
| Extinction-induced variability | An increase in the variety of operant response topographies following extinction. |
| Operant extinction | Responding that meets the reinforcement contingency no longer produces the reinforcer and, as a result, falls to baseline (no-reinforcer) levels. |
| Response topography (Topograph) | The physical movement or form of the response. |
| Spontaneous recovery of operant behavior | Temporary resumption of operant responding following time away from the extinction setting. |
| Backup Reinforcer | The reinforcer provided after the conditioned reinforcer signals the delay reduction to its delivery. |
| Conditioned reinforcers (Secondary reinforcers) | Those consequences that function as reinforcers only after Pavlovian learning occurs – the individual must learn that the conditioned reinforcer signals a delay reduction to a backup reinforcer. |
| Generalized conditioned reinforcer | A conditioned reinforcer that signals a delay reduction to more than one backup reinforcer. |
| Primary reinforcer | A consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in preserving the life of the individual or the continuation of the species. |
| Shaping | Differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior. |
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