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anatomy
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| signs are | objective |
| symptoms are | subjective |
| auscultation | listening with a stethoscope |
| 6 levels of organization | chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism |
| peri | around |
| frontal | forehead |
| cranial | skull |
| facial | face |
| cephalic | head |
| nasal | nose |
| ocular | eyes |
| orbital | eyes |
| otic | ears |
| buccal | cheek |
| cervical | neck |
| thoracic | thorax |
| oral | mouth |
| mental | chin |
| axillary | armpit |
| brachial | arm |
| mammary | breast |
| abdominal | abdomen |
| umbillical | naval |
| antecubital | front of elbow |
| antebrachial | forearm |
| carpal | wrist |
| palmar | palm |
| pelvic | pelvis |
| manual | hand |
| pollex | thumb |
| digits | finger or toes |
| inguinal | groin |
| pubic | pubis |
| femoral | thigh |
| patellar | kneecap |
| crural | leg |
| coccyx | tailbone |
| tarsal | ankle |
| hallux | big toe |
| pedal | foot |
| plantar | sole of foot |
| calcaneal | heel |
| sural | calf |
| popliteal | back of knee |
| gluteal | buttock |
| lumbar | lower back |
| olecranal | back of elbow |
| dorsal | back |
| ventral | front |
| anterior | front |
| inferior | below |
| superior | above |
| posterior | back |
| acromial | shoulder |
| supine | face up |
| prone | face down |
| lateral | side |
| superficial | close to the surface |
| deep | far from the surface |
| mesial | towards the midline |
| lateral | far from the midline |
| distal | away from point of attachment (limbs) |
| proximal | towards point of attachment (limbs) |
| cranial | towards the head |
| cephalic | towards the head |
| caudal | towards the coccyx (tail) |
| frontal plane | separates body into anterior/posterior sections |
| the frontal plane is oriented.... | parallel to the long axis |
| sagittal plane | separates body into right and left sections |
| midsagittal | separated at the midline |
| parasagittal | separated unequally, not at the midline |
| the sagittal plane is oriented.... | parallel to the long axis |
| coronal plane | separates body into anterior/posterior sections |
| the coronal plane is oriented.... | parallel to the long axis |
| transverse plane | this cross-section separates the body into superior/inferior portions |
| the transverse plane is oriented.... | perpendicular to the long axis |
| cavities are.... | closed and fluid filled. they are lined by serous membrane in the form of serosa tissue and protect organs from shocks and impacts, permitting change in size of an organ. |
| what is the point of serous fluid? | moisten serous membranes and reduces friction by coating opposing surfaces |
| visceral serosa | lines the organ |
| parietal serosa | lines the rest of the body |
| thoracic cavity | cavity found above the diaphragm. it contains the heart (pericardial cavity) and lungs (pleural cavities. also contains: trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland |
| mediastinum | separates the pleural cavities by holding the heart and wind and food pipes |
| pleural cavity & serosas | surrounds the lung (left/right) |
| the abdominopelvic cavities have the 2 subcavities of....and are both below the.... | abdominal and pelvic, below the diaphragm |
| peritoneal cavity.... | is lined by the peritoneum and contains the stomach, liver, spleen, jejunum, ileum, tranverse & signoid colons, and first part of duodenum |
| the abdominal cavity contains.... | liver, stomach, spleen, small intestine, and most of the large intestine |
| the kidneys and pancreas are special because.... | they are retroperitoneal, since they are in between the peritoneal lining and muscular wall of the abdominal cavity |
| the pelvic cavity contains.... | the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and the distal of the large intestine |
| the urinary bladder and distal sections of the ureters and large intestine are special because.... | they are infraperitoneal, because they extend inferior to the peritoneal cavity |
| homeostasis | the maintaining of equilibrium, also the foundation of physiology |
| homeostatic regulation | the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis |
| autoregulation | cell, tissue, or organ systems adjust in response to environmental change |
| extrinsic regulation | the nervous system releasing an electric signal or the endocrine releasing a chemical messenger to control and adjust the activities of other systems simultaneously in response to environmental change |
| negative feedback | the most common type. the effector negates the original stimulus |
| positive feedback | least common. extreme responses where a positive feedback loop escalates until homeostasis is restored |
| how does the integumentary system affect body temp? | heat loss |
| how does the muscular system affect body temp? | heat production |
| how does the cardiovascular system affect body temp? | heat distribution |
| how does the nervous system affect body temp? | coordination of blood flow, heat production, and heat loss |
| how does the digestive system affect the nutrient concentration in the body fluid composition? | nutrient storage, absorption, and release |
| how does the cardiovascular system affect the nutrient concentration in the body fluid composition? | nutrient distribution |
| how does the urinary system affect the nutrient concentration in the body fluid composition? | control of nutrient loss in the urine |
| how does the skeletal system affect the nutrient concentration in the body fluid composition? | mineral storage and release |
| how does the respiratory system affect the oxygen and CO2 levels in the body fluid composition? | absorption of oxygen and elimination of CO2 |
| how does the cardiovascular system affect the oxygen and CO2 levels in the body fluid composition? | internal transport of of oxygen and CO2 |
| how does the lymphatic system affect the levels of toxins and pathogens in the body fluid composition? | removal, destruction, or inactivation of toxins and pathogens |
| how does the urinary system affect the body fluid volume? | elimination or conservation of water from the blood |
| how does the digestive system affect the body fluid volume? | absorption of water, loss of water in feces |
| how does the itegumentary system affect the body fluid volume? | loss of water through perspiration |
| how does the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems affect the body fluid volume? | distribution of water throughout body tissues |
| how does the urinary system affect waste concentration? | excretion of waste through the blood |
| how does the digestive system affect waste concentration? | elimination of wastes through the liver in feces |
| how does the cardiovascular system affect waste concentration? | distribution of water throughout body tissue |
| how does the cardiovascular system affect blood pressure? | pressure generated by the heart moves through blood vessels |
| How does the nervous and endocrine systems affect blood pressure? | adjustments in heart rate and blood vessel diameter can raise or lower blood pressure |
| major organs of the lymphatic system | spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, tonsils, lymph nodes |
| functions of lymphatic system | -defend against infection and disease -return tissue fluids to the blood stream |
| major organs of the respiratory system | lungs, alveoli, bronchi, trachea, sinuses, nasal cavities, larynx |
| functions of the respiratory system | -deliver air to alveoli -provide oxygen to blood stream -remove CO2 from bloodstream -provide sounds for communication |
| alveoli are... | sites in the lungs where gas exchange occurs |
| major organs of the digestive system | teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas |
| major functions of the digestive system | -process and digest food -absorb and conserve water -absorbs nutrients -stores energy |
| major organs of the urinary system | kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra |
| major functions of the urinary system | -excrete waste products from the blood -control water balance by regulating the volume of urine produced -stores urine prior to voluntary elimination -regulates blood ion concentration and pH |
| major organs of the male reproductive system | testes, epididymis, ductus deferential, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, scrotum |
| major functions of male reproductive system | -produce sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids, and hormones -sexual intercourse |
| functions of female reproductive system | -produce sex cells (oocytes), and hormones -supports developing embryo from fertilization to delivery -provides milk to nourish newborn infant -sexual intercourse |
| major organs of the female reproductive system | ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands |
| major organs of the integumentary system | skin, hair, sweat glands, nails |
| major functions of the integumentary system | -protect against environmental hazards -help regulate body temp -provide sensory information |
| major organs of the skeletal system | bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, bone marrow |
| major functions of the skeletal system | -provide support and protection for other tissues -store calcium and other minerals -form blood cells |
| major organs of the muscular system | skeletal muscles and associated tendons |
| major functions of the muscular system | -provide movement -provide protection and support for other tissues -generate heat to maintain body temp |
| major organs of nervous system | brain, spinal cord, sense organs, peripheral nerves |
| major functions of nervous system | -direct immeadiate responses to stimuli -coordinate or moderate activities of other organ systems -provide and interpret sensory information about external conditions |
| major organs of endocrine system | pituitary glans, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems |
| major functions of the endocrine system | -direct long term changes in the activities of other organ systems -adjust metabolic activity and energy use -controls many structural and functional changes during development |
| major organs of the cardiovascular system | heart, blood, blood vessels |
| major functions of the cardiovascular system | -distribute blood cells, water, and dissolved materials (incl nutrients, waste, oxygen, and CO2) -distribute heat and assist in control of body temp |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the liver, gallbladder, right kidney, and small intestine | right hypochondriac |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the stomach, liver, pancreas, both kidneys | epigastric |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the stomach, tip of liver, left kidney, and spleen | left hypochondriac |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the tip of liver, small intestine, ascending colon, and right kidney | right lumbar |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the stomach, pancreas, small intestines, and transverse colon | umbilical |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the small intestines, descending colon, and left kidney | left lumbar |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the small intestines, appendix, cecum, and ascending colon | right iliac/inguinal |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the small intestines, sigmoid colon, and urinary bladder | hypogastric |
| abdominopelvic region that contains the small intestines, descending colon, and sigmoid colon | left iliac/inguinal |
| what is the use of oxygen in the human body (2) | component of water and other compounds, |
| what is the use of carbon in the human body (1) | found in all organic molecules |
| what is the use of hydrogen in the human body (2) | component of water and most other compounds in the body |
| what is the use of nitrogen in the human body (3) | found in proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds |
| what is the use of phosphorus in the human body (3) | found in bones and teeth, nucleic acids, and high-energy compounds |
| what is the use of calcium in the human body (5) | found in bones and teeth, important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting |
| what is the use of potassium in the human body (3) | important for membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction |
| what is the use of sodium in the human body (4) | important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction |
| what is the use of chlorine in the human body (3) | important for blood volume, membrane function, and water absorption |
| what is the use of magnesium in the human body (1) | cofactor for many enzymes |
| what is the use of sulfur in the human body (1) | found in many proteins |
| what is the use of iron in the human body (2) | essential for oxygen transport and energy capture |
| what is the use of iodine in the human body (1) | component of thyroid gland's hormones |
| inert chemicals do/do not undergo chemical reactions | do not |
| properties of free radicals ( 3) | -do not have bonds -highly reactive -typically enter destructive reactions |
| nitric oxide is... (5) | a good free radical, involved with nervous system chemical communication, controls blood vessel diameter, blood clotting, and defense against bacteria or pathogens |
| HONC 1234 | hydrogen 1 pair oxygen 2 pairs nitrogen 3 pairs carbon 4 pairs |
| hydrolysis | AB + H2O -> AH + BOH |
| dehydration | AH + BOH -> H2O + AB |
| adding two monomers together requires what type of reaction? | dehydration synthesis |
| What ions does NaCl release? | Na+ and Cl- |
| What ions does KCl release? | K+ and Cl- |
| What ions does CaPO4 release? | Ca 2+ and PO4 2- |
| What ions does NaHCO3 release? | Na+ and HCO3- |
| What ions does MgCl2 release? | Mg 2+ and 2Cl- |
| What ions does Na2HPO4 release? | 2Na+ and HPO4 2- |
| What ions does Na2SO4 release? | 2Na+ and SO4 2- |
| properties of monosaccharides (4) | examples: glucose and fructose. they are energy sources that are manufactured in the body, obtained from food, distributed in body fluids |
| properties of disaccharides (3) | examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose. they are energy sources that must be broken down into monosaccharides via hydrolysis before absorption |
| properties of polysaccharides (4) | example: glycogen. they store glucose, with glycogen in animal cells and starches/cellulose in plant cells |
| What elements make up lipids? | C, H, and less O |
| How does the energy content of lipids compare with carbohydrates? | Lipids have more energy than carbs |
| What type of bonds do unsaturated lipids have? | C=C bonds |
| What is an example of a fatty acid? | Lauric acid |
| What is one function of fatty acids? | Energy source |
| Where do fatty acids come from? | They are absorbed from food or synthesized in cells |
| How are fatty acids transported? | In the blood |
| What are eicosanoids? | Chemical messengers that coordinate local cellular activities |
| What are two examples of eicosanoids? | Prostaglandins and leukotrienes |
| Where are prostaglandins produced? | In most body tissues |
| What are the three types of glycerides? | Monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides |
| What is one function of glycerides? | Energy source |
| How do glycerides help protect the body? | They provide insulation and physical protection |
| Where are glycerides stored? | In fat deposits |
| What must happen before stored glycerides can be used as an energy source? | They must be broken down to fatty acids and glycerol |
| What process breaks down glycerides into fatty acids and glycerol? | Hydrolysis and lipases |
| What is an example of a steroid? | Cholesterol |
| What is one function of cholesterol? | It is a structural component of plasma membranes |
| What digestive secretion contains cholesterol? | Bile |
| What common framework do steroids have? | The same 4-C framework |
| What is an example of a phospholipid? | Lecithin (P) |
| What is a function of phospholipids? | They are structural components of plasma membranes |
| What are phospholipids derived from? | Fatty acids and non-lipid components |
| What is the central structure of an amino acid? | A central carbon |
| What group is attached to the central carbon of an amino acid? | An amino group |
| What acidic group is attached to the central carbon of an amino acid? | A carboxyl group |
| What variable group is attached to the central carbon? | An R group |
| What do peptide bonds connect? | OH and H from an amino group |
| What is produced when a peptide bond forms? | C-N and H₂O |
| What elements make up water? | Hydrogen and oxygen atoms |
| Where does water come from? | It is absorbed from the diet or generated by metabolism |
| What is one function of water? | Solvent |
| What is another function of water? | Transport medium for dissolved materials |
| How does water help with cooling? | By evaporation |
| What role does water play in chemical reactions? | It is a medium for chemical reactions and a reactant in some reactions |
| What ions and particles make up acids, bases, and salts? | H⁺, OH⁻, various anions, and cations |
| Where do acids, bases, and salts come from? | They are obtained from the diet or generated by metabolism |
| What are functions of acids, bases, and salts? | Structural compounds, buffers, and sources of ions |
| What elements can make up dissolved gases? | O, C, N, and other atoms |
| Where do dissolved gases come from? | The atmosphere and metabolism |
| Why is O₂ important? | It is required for cellular metabolism |
| What happens to CO₂? | It is generated by cells as a waste product |
| What is the function of NO? | It acts as a chemical messenger in the cardiovascular, nervous, and lymphatic systems |
| What sugar is found in RNA? | Ribose |
| What sugar is found in DNA? | Deoxyribose |
| What nitrogenous base is represented by A in RNA? | Adenine |
| What nitrogenous base is represented by G in RNA? | Guanine |
| What nitrogenous base is represented by C in RNA? | Cytosine |
| What nitrogenous base is represented by U in RNA? | Uracil |
| What nitrogenous base is found in DNA instead of uracil? | Thymine (T) |
| How many nucleotides can a typical RNA molecule contain? | From fewer than 100 nucleotides to about 50,000 |
| How many nucleotides can a DNA molecule contain? | Always more than 45 million |
| What determines the shape of an RNA molecule? | Hydrogen bonding along the length of the strand |
| What are the three main types of RNA listed? | mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA |
| What is the shape of a DNA molecule? | Paired strands coiled in a double helix |
| What is the function of RNA? | Performs protein synthesis as directed by DNA |
| What is the function of DNA? | Stores genetic information that controls protein synthesis |
| What does adenine joined to ribose form? | Adenosine |
| What are carbohydrates made of? | C, H, and O, and in some cases N; CHO in a 1:2:1 ratio |
| What are the monomers of carbohydrates? | Monosaccharide monomers |
| Where do carbohydrates come from? | They are obtained from the diet or manufactured in the body |
| What is a function of carbohydrates? | Energy source |
| What structural role can carbohydrates have? | Some structural role when attached to lipids or proteins |
| What elements make up lipids according to the table? | C, H, O, and in some cases N or P; CHO not in a 1:2:1 ratio |
| What are the monomers of lipids? | Fatty acids and glycerol monomers |
| Where do lipids come from? | They are obtained from the diet or manufactured in the body |
| What are functions of lipids? | Energy source, insulation, structural components, chemical messengers, and protection |
| What elements make up proteins? | C, H, O, N, and commonly S |
| What are the monomers of proteins? | Amino acid monomers |
| How many common amino acids are there? | 20 common amino acids |
| How are some amino acids obtained? | About half can be manufactured in the body; others must be obtained from the diet |
| What are functions of proteins? | Catalysts for metabolic reactions, structural components, movement, buffers, defense, control, and coordination of activities |
| What elements make up nucleic acids? | C, H, O, N, and P |
| What are the monomers of nucleic acids? | Nucleotides of phosphates, sugars, and nitrogenous bases |
| Where do nucleic acids come from? | They are obtained from the diet or manufactured in the body |
| What is the function of nucleic acids? | Storage and processing of genetic information |
| What are high-energy compounds made of? | Nucleotides joined to phosphates by high-energy bonds |
| Where are high-energy compounds made? | Synthesized by all cells |
| What is the function of high-energy compounds? | Storage or transfer of energy |
| angio | blood vessel |
| arthro | joint |
| chondro | cartilage |
| costo | rib |
| hepato | liver |
| myo | muscle |
| nephro | kidney (greek) |
| reno | kidney (latin) |
| vaso | vessel/duct |
| algia | pain |
| blast | immature cell |
| cyte | cell |
| ectomy | surgical removal |
| infra | below/beneath |
| inter | between |
| intra | within/inside |
| iso | equal/same |
| itis | inflammation |
| lysis | break down or dissolution |
| penia | deficiency |
| sero | serum/watery fluid |
| ipslateral | on the same side of the body |
| contralateral | on the opposite side of the body |
| bilateral | on both side of the body |
| the x-ray is best suited for: | viewing dense structures such as bones |
| what are key limitations of the x-ray | inability to see soft tissues and organs |
| the ct scan is best suited for: | rapidly and clearly imaging bone fractures, internal bleeding, acute trauma, and organs within the chest, abdomen, and pelvis |
| what are key limitations of the ct scan | exposure to ionizing radiation |
| what are key limitations of the MRI | long scan times, high costs, and strict safety restrictions for people with certain metal implants |
| the mri is best suited for: | viewing detailed pictures of soft tissues, organs, and internal structures without using radiation |
| what are key limitations of the pet scan | lower resolution, false-positive results from inflammation, false-negative results from slow-growing tumors, and interference from high blood sugar |
| the pet scan is best suited for: | evaluating cellular function, blood flow, and metabolic activity in tissues to detect diseases like cancer, heart disease, and brain disorders at a molecular level |
| the ultrasound is best suited for: | viewing soft tissues, blood flow, and developing fetuses in real time without the use of radiation |
| what are key limitations of the ultrasound | inability to effectively penetrate bone or air-filled spaces and its heavy reliance on operator skill |
| what does the plasma membrane contain | carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins |
| describe the phospholipid bilayer (plasma membrane) (3 parts) | hydrophilic phosphate heads with hydrophobic lipid tails and cholesterol components to stiffen the membrane |
| integral proteins (there are more of these than peripheral) | a part of the plasma membrane structure that cant be easily separated without damaging the membrane |
| peripheral proteins | bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane and are easily separated from it |
| anchoring proteins | attach the plasma membrane to other structures and stabilize its position |
| recognition proteins | allows the immune system to recognize its own |
| receptor proteins | sensitive to ligands (extracellular molecules or ions) |
| carrier proteins (sometimes require ATP) | bind solutes and transport them across the plasma membrane |
| channels (integral protein type) | central pore to get through the plasma membrane, allowing ions and small water-soluble molecules to pass thru the phospholipid bilayer |
| gated channels (integral protein type) | these can open and close to allow ions and small water-soluble molecules through the phospholipid bilayer |
| what are gated channel integral proteins useful for? | muscle contractions and nerve impulse transmission |
| rafts | areas that mark the location of some anchoring, integral, or peripheral proteins |
| glycocalyx (4 functions) | carbohydrate based molecules that extend beyond the outer surface of the plasma membrane that help with lubrication, anchoring, binding receptors, and recognition |
| the cytoplasm contains (3) | cytosol (colloid with lots of proteins), organelles, and inclusions |
| cytoskeleton (3) NM | -internal protein framework that gives the cell structure -made of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments -also helps with metabolic functions in the cytoplasm |
| microfilaments (5) NM | -smallest part of cytoskeleton -made of actin protein -sometimes form a terminal web inside the plasma membrane -determine consistency of cytosol -help with anchoring of plasma membrane |
| intermediate filaments (4) NM | -second largest part of cytoskeleton -most durable -strengthen cell/shape -stabilize organelles position -stabilize cell's position relative to other cells |
| microtubules (7) NM | -largest part of cytoskeleton -built from tubulin protein -extend out from the centrosome -help with anchoring/shape -help with movement of the cell through making and deleting microtubules -work with motor proteins to move organelles through the cel |
| role of microtubules in celldivision NM | distribute duplicated chromosomes with DNA in them through the spindle apparatus made of microtubules |
| microvilli NM | extracellular microfilaments increasing cell surface area for cells that need to absorb a lot. they are connected to the cytoskeleton |
| centrosome NM | microtubule organizing center next to nucleus. it surrounds centrioles that help make the spindle apparatus and basal bodies |
| cillia NM | similar to microvilli, but move the cell (motile) instead of absorbing nutrients -NON MOTILE CILLIA are signal sensors that detect environment conditions and coordinate embryonic development and homeostasis |
| flagellum NM | like the tail on sperm. one per cell |
| ribosomes (5) NM | -protein synthesis -made of RNA and protein -contains small and large ribosomal subunits -fixed ribosomes send proteins to the ER to be packaged and sent off |
| what 3 parts must meet to start ribosomal protein synthesis? | mRNA, small ribosomal subunit, and large ribosomal subunit |
| Proteasomes (3) NM | -contain protein digesting enzymes that remove proteins from the cytoplasm -attach ubiquitin to proteins destined for recycling, that are then sent to proteasomes -play a key role in immune process by removing bad proteins |
| endoplasmic reticulum (6) M | -connected to the nucleus via nuclear envelope -synthesize proteins, lipids, and carbs -stores synthesized molecules or materials -materials can transport from place to place in the ER -can absorb and neutralize (enzymes) drugs or toxins -cisternae |
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum (4) | -no fixed ribosomes -synthesis (glycogen, glycerides, steroids, cholesterol, phospholipids) -detox -isolation of calcium ions |
| rough endoplasmic reticulum (2) | -fixed ribosomes that synthesize proteins to release into cisternae -sends proteins (secondary and tertiary) to golgi apparatus via transport vesicles |
| golgi apparatus | -receives new proteins that are to be sent off out the cell -has membranous discs called cisternae -modifies and packages secretions like enzymes or hormones -changes protein structure by +/- carbs -modifies plasma membrane |
| lysosomes | -vesicles made by golgi apparatus -give isolated environment for dangerous chemical reactions -disgestive enzymes to turn polymers to monomers -remove damaged organelles -self destruct cell if too damaged (autolysis) -destroy bacteria (endocytosis) |
| primary vs secondary lysosomes | primary contain inactive enzymes, but turn secondary when they fuse with membranes of damaged organelles |
| peroxisomes | -produced by lready existing peroxisomes -enzymes produced at free ribosomes and transported to peroxisomes via carrier proteins -absorb/breakdown fatty acids -generate hydrogen peroxide (bad) but its then broken down by catalase (catabolism) |
| miochondria | -make ATP -double membrane (hold cell and cristae) which increase surface area to make more ATP -have its own DNA and ribosomes -uses krebs cycle -cellular respiration |
| membrane flow | the process of all organelles besides mitochondria being connected to eachother in a system |
| nuclear envelope | -surrounds nucleus separating it from the cytosol -double membrane separated by a perinuclear space -sometimes connected to RER |
| nuclear pore complex/nuclear pores | -methods for chemical communication of cytoplasm to nucleus -each pore has ~50 associated proteins |
| nucleoplasm | -fluid portion of the nucleus -contains ions, enzymes, RNA and DNA nucleotides, and small amts of RNA/DNA |
| nuclear matrix | -network of fine filaments to provide structural support -may be involved in regulation of genetic activity |
| nucleolus/nucleoli | -nuclear organelles that synthesize ribosomal RNA -assemble ribosomal subunits -composed of RNA, enzymes, and histones (protein) |
| nucleosome | -DNA strands that wind around histones, forming a complex |
| gene | -functional unit of heredity |
| protein synthesis | -the assembling of functional polypeptides in the cytoplasm -transcription -translation |
| mRNA | -takes protein synthesis info out of the nucleus during transcription |
| what organelle allows the tRNA to covalently bond during translation? | ribosomes in the cytoplasm |
| active processes require the cell to use what in order to move ions/molecules across the plasma membrane? | energy--usually ATP |
| diffusion | high to low concentration movement--DOWNHILL! -eliminates concentration gradients |
| osmosis | -diffusion of water across selectively permeable membranes -water flows across a selectively permeable membrane toward the solution w the higher solute concentration |
| osmosis in relation to membranes: | -osmosis can only happen on a selectively permeable membrane that is freely permeable to water, but not other solutes |
| tonos | tension |
| tonicity | effects of various osmotic solutions on cells |
| carrier mediated transport | -integral proteins bind specific ions/organic substances to carry across the plasma membrane -symports/antiports (based off direction) |
| facilitated diffusion | -type of carrier mediated transport -larger, lipid-insoluble nutrients bind to receptor site on protein and are transported across with the protein -DOES NOT create a continuous open channel across the membrane -NO ATP |
| active transport | -uses ATP -does not depend on a concentration gradient -import or export whatever whenever -ion pumps to transport Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ -exchange pumps can go backwards -primary or secondary |
| primary active transport | -sodium-potassium exchange pump -against the concentration gradient -done by sodium-potassium ATPase -sodium less in cytoplasm, more in extracellular fluid -potassium is vice versa -needs lots of ATP -3 less sodium for 2 more potassium for the cell |
| secondary active transport | -no ATP needed -moves one substance across thru concentration gradient, but can have a diff substance pass along with no matter the concentration gradient |
| vesicular transport | -use vesicles (small membranous sacs) -move tiny drops of solutes and fluid (bulk transport) -endocytosis or exocytosis |
| endocytosis | -large volumes of material -packaged in vesicles and imported into the cell -receptor-mediated, pinocytosis, or phagocytosis |
| receptor-mediated cytosis | -highly selective -contain specific target molecule in high concentrations -most receptors and glycoproteins -ligands migrate to clathrin-coated pits -bind to plasma membrane, and forms deep pockets that pinch off into the cell and ligands remove |
| pinocytosis | -formation of pinosomes (endosomes filled w extracellular fluid) -not selective bc there arent receptor proteins -same process as receptor/mediated, but with no ligands |
| phagocytosis | -phagosomes contain solid objects that may be as large as the cell itself -cytoplasmic extensions (pseudopodia) surround to object to form the phagosome -it then fuses with lysosomes and the enzymes digest its contents -only done by specialized cells |
| exocytosis | -vesicle formed inside the cell and fuses with the plasma membrane -when fused with the plasma membrane, the vesicle contents are released into extracellular environment |
| transcytosis | -in a few specialized cells -endocytosis produced vesicles on one side of the cell are discharged via exocytosis on the other side -pinocytosis + exocytosis to transfer fluid from blood stream to surrounding tissues |
| what kind of charge does the cytoplasm-facing surface of the plasma membrane have? | slight negative |
| what kind of charge does the extracellular fluid-facing surface of the plasma membrane have? | slight positive, due to sodium cations |
| apoptosis | genetically controlled cell death |
| apo | separated from |
| ptosis | a falling |
| interphase | -stage of cell life cycle between miotic divisions (resting phase) -go from G0 to G1, S, and G2 -DNA replicates |
| M pahse | -cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division) -mitosis (nuclear division) |
| mitosis | -duplication of chromosomes in nucleus to make 2 identical sets -P-MAT (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) |
| cytokinesis | -division of cytoplasm during mitosis -late anaphase to telophase, to make 2 daughter cells\ -last step :D |
| stem cells | unspecialized cells used to make more daughter cells |
| prophase | -creation of sister chromatids -nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear |
| metaphase | sister chromatids line up at center of cell by spindle microtubules |
| anaphase | sister chromatids move apart |
| telophase | nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear |
| growth factor | chemical from outside a cell that promotes cell division |
| mutagens | agents that cause a mutation/change in DNA |
| metastasis | the spread of cancer to other areas |
| meta | after |
| stasis | standing still |
| tumor is also known as | primary metastasis |
| oncogene | mutated regulatory gene that causes cancer |
| anaplasia | irreversible change in size and shape of tissue cells |
| dysplasia | reversable change in size and shape of tissue cells |
| hyperplasia | increase in number of regular cells in a tissue or organ, enlarging it |
| hypertrophy | enlargement of an organ or tissue due to an increase in the size of its cells |
| desmos | ligament |
| krino | to separate |
| genesis | production |
| angeion | vessel |
| what are glands? | attached to or derived from epithelia that produce fluid secretion to help produce secretions (gland cells), permeability, sensation |
| epithelial cells are: p___ m____ (____) a______ h_____ (____) | polar (apical/basal) surfaces mostly made of cells (connected at cell junctions) avascular high rate of cell division (due to stem cells) |
| function of microvilli in epithelia | absorption |
| function of cilia in epithelia | transport |
| gap junctions: | -found in epithelia -holds 2 cells together by embedded transmembrane connexon proteins -the proteins form a small passageway for ions/small molecules to pass |
| tight junctions: | -found in epithelia nearer apical surface -the lipid portions of 2 plasma membranes are bound by interlocking membrane proteins -the inferior adhesion belt binds adjacent cells to microfilament of the terminal web -prevents passage of water/solutes |
| lumen | passageway between apical surface and and rest of the tube |
| desmosomes | -found in epithelia (more superficial) -CAMs and proteoglycans link opposing plasma membranes -strong: resist tearing, stretching -strong due to dense area connected to cytoskeleton |
| spot desmosomes | cell to cell |
| hemidesmosomes | cell to basement membrane |
| CAMs (cell adhesion molecules) | transmembrane proteins that bind to eachother and extracellular materials to connect opposing sides of the plasma membrane |
| glycosaminoglycans | type of proteoglycan derived from polysaccharides to help bind adjacent cell membranes to eachother |
| proteoglycans | specialized molecules made of a central protein core attached to long, sugar chains called glycosaminoglycans -can help prevent water loss |
| function of basal lamina | -selective filter -restricts movement of proteins and larger molecules from entering epithelium |
| function of reticular lamina | -made of reticular fibers and ground substance -filters between the epithelium and tissues below |
| mesothelium | stratified squamous epithelium that lines the cavities in the abdoment |
| endothelium | stratified squamous epithelium that lines blood vessels and the inner heart surface |
| function of keratinized epithelium | good for areas with a lot of mechanical stress and dehydration |
| function of nonkeratinized epithelium | resists absorption but will dry out without adequate moisture |
| endocrine glands | release secretions into the blood |
| exocrine glands | release secretions on the epithelial surface or into ducts |
| ducts | passageways that open onto an epithelial surface |
| unicellular (exocrine gland) | -goblet cells (absorbant cells in columnar epi of intestines) or -mucous (everywhere else) |
| multicellular (exocrine gland) | secretory sheets, simple or compounds, alveolar, or tubular |
| where to find simple tubular exocrine structures | glands of the intestines |
| where to find simple coiled tubular exocrine structures | -merocrine or sweat glands |
| where to find simple branched exocrine structures | -gastric glands -mucous glands of the esophagus, duodenum, and tongue |
| where to find simple alveolar exocrine structures | -not found in adults: only in development |
| where to find branched alveolar exocrine structures | -oil/sebaceous glands |
| where to find coiled tubular exocrine structures | -mouth mucous glands -male bulbo-urethra glands -testes |
| where to find coiled tubulo-alveolar exocrine structures | -salivary glands -respiratory passage glands -pancreas |
| where to find coiled alveolar exocrine structures | mammary glands |
| function of hyaluronan in epi tissue | polysaccharide derivative that links epithelium together |
| merocrine secretion | -product released from exocrine cell by secretory vesicles through exocytosis on the apical surface -most common |
| apocrine secretion | -cytoplasm + watery solution breakoff -regrows |
| holocrine secretion | cells fully burst to release the secretion |
| serous glands | watery solution with enzymes, found in parotid salivary glands |
| mucous glands | mucins and water to form mucous, found in sublingual salivary glands |
| mixed glands | have both serous and mucous gland properties, found in submandibular salivary glands |
| function of connective tissue | connect epithelium to the rest of the body |
| types of connective tissue | -connective tissue proper (CTP) -fluid tissue (FT) -supporting connective tissue (STC) |
| what makes collagen in CTP | fibroblasts |
| fibroblasts in CTP | -always present -secretes proteins and hyaluronan -helps form proteoglycans |
| fibrocytes in CTP | -second most abundant -spindle shaped cells that maintain CT fibers in the CTP |
| adipocytes in CTP | -fat cells -large lipid droplet with the nucleus, organelles, and cytoplasm pushed off to the side |
| mesenchymal cells in CTP | -stem cells -respond to injury or infection by dividing into any other type of CTP cell |
| melanocytes in CTP | -synthesize and store melanin -common in epi skin, dermis, and eye |
| macrophages in CTP | phagocytic cells that release chemicals to activate the immune system and call other macrophages over |
| mast cells in CTP | -start developing in the blood -matures in vascularized tissues -cytoplasm contains histamine and heparin granules |
| histamine in CTP | inflammatory |
| heparin | anti-coagulant |
| basophils | blood cells that respond to injury or infection, also contain histamine and heparin |
| lymphocytes in CTP | -migrate through the body (but more are in the areas where more damage is -may turn into plasma cells |
| microphages in CTP | -phagocytic blood cells -move due to macro and mast cell signals |
| collagen fibers in CTP | -most common -long, straight, and unbranched, flexible, and strong -makes up tendons and ligaments |
| tendons | connect muscle to bone |
| ligaments | connects bone to bone |
| plasma cell | produce antibodies |
| antibodies | proteins that fight disease |
| reticular fibers in CTP | -thinner than collage fibers, branching, interwoven -framework that resists forces from many directions because of its stroma -stabilizes positions of parenchyma |
| parenchyma | -cells of the main function of an organ |
| elastic fibers in CTP | -contain elastin protein -branched, wavy -interconnect vertebrae |
| function of ground substance in CTP | viscous and helps stop bacteria movement |
| functions of LCT | -fill spaces between organs, support epithelia, and stabilize specialized cells -store lipids and support nerves/blood vessels -provide route for diffusion |
| embryonic LCT/mesenchyme | -appears in developing embryo -star shaped cells with a matrix made of fine protein filaments -develops mucous tissue |
| capillaries | thin-walled blood vessels that remove waste and CO2, deliver O2 and nutrients, and bring cells to tissue |
| areolar LCT | -least specialized -loosely organized: allowing to absorb shocks, distort without damage -elastic fibers -separates skin from deeper structures like muscles -capillaries -fibrocytes maintain their reticular lamina from epi that tops areolar |
| adipose LCT | -most white fat cells -brown fat are highly vascularized (neck, shoulder blades, produces heat) -adipocytes break down and are replaced, producing heat |
| Reticular LCT | -3d stroma holding specialized cells |
| dense regular LCT | -tightly packed parallel collagen fibers -tendons/liagments |
| dense irregular LCT | -no consistent pattern -sheath around cartilage -forms thick fibrous capsule layers |
| aponeuroses | -tendinous sheet (broad/flat muscle connected to several bones) -lots of fibroblasts -stabilize tendons or ligaments |
| elastic LCT | -more elastic than collagen fibers -support transitional epithelium |
| what is fascia? | continuous, web-like sheet of fibrous connective tissue that wraps around, supports, and separates every muscle, bone, nerve, blood vessel, and organ in the body. |
| superficial fascia in LCT | -subcutaneous layer -areolar or adipose separates skin from tissues and organs -insulation, padding, and movement |
| deep fascia LCT | -sheets of dense regular LCT -resists forces from many directions -muscular, parietal, or visceral -capsules and organs bind to fascia -interwoven, fibrous network |
| subserous fascia LCT | -areolar -below deep and truly lines organs |
| blood FT | -watery-plasma matrix made of blood cells and fragments of cells (called formed elements) -3 types: red, white, platelets |
| red blood cell | -lack a nucleus -transport CO2 and O2 |
| monocyte | -type of white blood cell -phagocytes similar to the free macrophages in other tissues |
| lymphocytes | -type of white blood cell -uncommon in blood but dominant in the lymph |
| eosinophils and neutrophils | -phagocytes (microphages) |
| platelets | -membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm that function in blood clotting |
| arteries take blood__ | away from the heart and towards tissues |
| veins take blood ____ | back to the heart |
| lymph FT | -enters lymphatic vessels to respond to infection/filtering |
| cartilage SCT | -firm gel containing chondroitin sulfates that form complexes with proteins in the ground substances, making proteoglycans -occupies lacunae (small chambers) -avascular (due to antiangiogenesis factor inhibitors) -uses diffusion -heals poorly |
| cartilage is surrounded by the _____, which has an outer ___ and inner ____ chamber | perichondrium; fibrous; cellular |
| interstitial growth of cartilage | growth from within, used for development |
| appositional growth of cartilage | chondroblasts add to the outer layer |
| central canals in bone | -allow blood vessel to pass thru |
| canaliculi in bone | -branching network for exchange of materials |
| red blood cell | -lack a nucleus -transport CO2 and O2 |
| monocyte | -type of white blood cell -phagocytes similar to the free macrophages in other tissues |
| lymphocytes | -type of white blood cell -uncommon in blood but dominant in the lymph |
| eosinophils and neutrophils | -phagocytes (microphages) |
| platelets | -membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm that function in blood clotting |
| arteries take blood__ | away from the heart and towards tissues |
| veins take blood ____ | back to the heart |
| lymph FT | -enters lymphatic vessels to respond to infection/filtering |
| cartilage SCT | -firm gel containing chondroitin sulfates that form complexes with proteins in the ground substances, making proteoglycans -occupies lacunae (small chambers) -avascular (due to antiangiogenesis factor inhibitors) -uses diffusion -heals poorly |
| cartilage is surrounded by the _____, which has an outer ___ and inner ____ chamber | perichondrium; fibrous; cellular |
| interstitial growth of cartilage | growth from within, used for development |
| appositional growth of cartilage | chondroblasts add to the outer layer |
| central canals in bone | -allow blood vessel to pass thru |
| canaliculi in bone | -branching network for exchange of materials |
| red blood cell | -lack a nucleus -transport CO2 and O2 |
| monocyte | -type of white blood cell -phagocytes similar to the free macrophages in other tissues |
| lymphocytes | -type of white blood cell -uncommon in blood but dominant in the lymph |
| eosinophils and neutrophils | -phagocytes (microphages) |
| platelets | -membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm that function in blood clotting |
| arteries take blood__ | away from the heart and towards tissues |
| veins take blood ____ | back to the heart |
| lymph FT | -enters lymphatic vessels to respond to infection/filtering |
| cartilage SCT | -firm gel containing chondroitin sulfates that form complexes with proteins in the ground substances, making proteoglycans -occupies lacunae (small chambers) -avascular (due to antiangiogenesis factor inhibitors) -uses diffusion -heals poorly |
| cartilage is surrounded by the _____, which has an outer ___ and inner ____ chamber | perichondrium; fibrous; cellular |
| interstitial growth of cartilage | growth from within, used for development |
| appositional growth of cartilage | chondroblasts add to the outer layer |
| central canals in bone | -allow blood vessel to pass thru |
| canaliculi in bone | -branching network for exchange of materials |
| periosteum function in bone | helps to attach a bone to surrounding tissues and to associated tendons and ligaments. The cellular layer takes part in bone growth and helps with repairs after an injury. |
| mucous membranes: | -coated with secretions of mucous glands -lines most of respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of urinary and reproductive tracts |
| serous membranes: | line the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities |
| cutaneous: | -also called the skin -covers the outer surface of the body |
| synovial membranes: | -line joint cavities -produce synovial fluid within the joint |
| skeletal muscle | -long, cylindrical muscle cells/fibers -multiple nuclei due to several hundred nuclei just in the plasma membrane -combined with connective and neural tissue in skeletal muscles -cant divide, but made by myosatellite cells -can repair itself |
| how are skeletal muscles moved? | their actin and myosin are striated and produce contractions due to the nervous system's direction STRIATED VOLUNTARY MUSCLE |
| cardiac muscles | -thin and short -1-5 nuclei -straited, branching network meets at intercalated discs that are locked tgth by proteasomes and desomosomes during contraction -limited repairability -pacemaker cells set reg rate of contraction |
| how are cardiac muscles moved? | STRIATED INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE |
| smooth muscle tissue | -blood vessel walls, around hollow organs like bladder, layers around digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts -short, spindle shape, tapered ends, 1 nucleus, no striation -divides and repairs -contract on its own w gap junction controlling time |
| damaged cells release: | prostaglandins, proteins, and potassium ions |
| damaged connective tissue releases: | mast cells in an inflammation response |
| autolysis causes | necrosis, making pus |
| fibrosis | replacement of normal tissue by fibrous tissue |
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