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placeholder set made by Drew, will organize them into class sets
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| cibarium | located at base of hypopharynx |
| locomotion | the main purpose of the thorax is ___________ of the insect |
| prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax | the three segments of the thorax |
| prothorax | segment 5 of insect forelegs located here |
| mesothorax | segment 6 of insect middle legs and forewings located here |
| metathorax | segment 7 of insect hind legs and hindwings located here |
| notum | Dorsal surface of the thorax "notum/nota" replace "tergum/terga" when discussing the thorax, i.e. pronotum (remember: only refers to dorsal side) still use sternum/sterna, i.e. prosternum, for ventral side |
| saltatorial | refers to jumping body plan grasshoppers, fleas |
| cursorial | refers to running body plan cockroach, ant, carabid beetles |
| scansorial | refers to clinging body plan lice |
| raptorial | refers to grasping (prey) body plan mantids |
| fossorial | refers to digging body plan mole crickets, cicada nymphs |
| natatorial | refers to swimming body plan backswimmers, diving beetles |
| wings | only occur in adults (except Ephemeroptera) |
| Apterygota | primitively wingless insects Thysanura, Microcoryphia |
| Pterygota | winged insects |
| Palaeoptera | "old wing" the primitive groups of winged insects (most extinct) that lack the ability to fold the wings over the abdomen |
| Neoptera | "new wing" group of winged insects that have the ability to fold wings over abdomen |
| Exopterygota | incomplete metamorphosis |
| Endopterygota | complete metamorphosis |
| costa, subcosta, radius, media, cubitus | 5 major wing veins |
| cross veins | wing veins that connect longitudinal veins hyphenated btw connections of major veins (e.g., r-m = radius-media connection) |
| wing cells | open at edge/end of wing, closed if not at edge/end of wing usually named for adjacent veins |
| tegmina | leathery forewings Orthoptera |
| elytra | hardened forewings Coleoptera |
| hemelytra | The half leathery, half membranous wings Hemiptera |
| halteres | modified hind wings used for balance rather than flight |
| deciduous | removable wings Isoptera, ants |
| apterous | lacking wings Thysanura, Phthiraptera, Siphonoptera |
| fringes | long hairs used as wings on tiny insects Thysanoptera, Coleoptera |
| scales and hairs | wing features |
| hamuli | Small hooks that link forewing and hindwing together in insects that beat wings synchronously |
| abdominal segments 1-7 | abdomen pregenital segments, similar shape, no jointed appendages |
| abdominal segments 8-9 | abdomen segments that sport genitalia |
| abdominal segments 10-11 | abdomen segments that can feature epiproct (above anus) and paraproct (lateral to anus) appendages |
| cerci | Paired appendages near the end of insect's abdomens that usually used in sensory (Zygentoma, Blattodea) but can also be used for grasping (Dermaptera) |
| spiracles | paired openings in the lateral sides of mesothorax, metathorax, and abdomen segments of an insect that are used for breathing often lined with hairs to capture debris |
| styli | peg-like appendages found along the sides of the abdomen in some primitive insects Zygentoma, Microcoryphia |
| prolegs | unsegmented |
| crochet | velcro-like gripping mechanism of prolegs |
| ovipositor | female genitalia |
| stinger | modified ovipositor used to deliver venom |
| claspers | male genitalia |
| aedeagus | male genitalia |
| hemocoel | The primary body cavity of most invertebrates, containing circulatory fluid lined with ectoderm & endoderm, but no mesoderm so not a true coelom |
| hemolymph | body fluid that bathes tissues/organs in open circulatory systems |
| striated | type of muscle in insects |
| synchronous | muscles where one nerve pulse results in one contraction <100 Hz |
| asynchronous | muscled where one nerve pulse results in many contractions 100-1000 Hz e.g., flight muscles, cicada tympanum muscles |
| legless larvae | larvae that depend on hydrostatic skeleton to locomote |
| alternating tripod | gait where insects switch between sets of 3 legs to locomote (2 legs on one side, 1 on other) |
| traction | arolium, pulvilli, claws provide this for insects while locomoting across substrate (not flying) molecular adhesion occurs via van der Waals forces from tiny, spatulate hairs on insect feet |
| arolium | a pad-like lobe projecting between the tarsal claws of many insects |
| pulvilli | soft, cushion-like pads on feet of insects |
| oars | wettable locomotive appendages for use on/in water |
| hydrophobic hairs | water striders and hydrometrids have these on their legs that can push a wave without breaking water surface, allowing for locomotion |
| flight | this insect ability is a key to success and diversification of insects allows exploitation of new environments and escape from bad environments greater stability and maneuverability than human aircraft |
| direct | type of flight biomechanics when muscles attach to wing base |
| indirect | type of flight biomechanics when muscles attach to tergum and sternum |
| function of nervous system | integration of external sensory & internal physiological information |
| neuron | nerve cell |
| dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
| axon | the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, used in transmission to other cells |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron |
| sensory | type of neuron receive external stimuli and transmit info to CNS |
| interneuron | type of neuron transmit info from one neuron to another |
| motor | type of neuron transmit info from interneuron to muscle |
| CNS (central nervous system) | ganglia + connectives |
| brain | large ganglia fusion |
| subesophageal ganglion | fusion of ganglia in insect head |
| endocrine system | chemical communication system whose function is to emit chemical signals that cause physiological responses, like molting |
| hormones | chemical messages transported within body |
| neurosecretory cells | modified neurons that secrete hormones |
| corpora cardiaca | paired glands behind brain, secrete PTTH (prothorcicitrophic hormone), which stimulates prothoracic glands |
| prothoracic glands | secrete ecdysone |
| ecdysone | molting hormone |
| corpora allata | paired, beside foregut |
| juvenile hormone (JH) | controls metamorphosis, regulates reproductive development |
| circulatory system | open system |
| dorsal blood vessel | transports hemolymph from posterior to anterior of body heart (posterior), aorta (anterior), dorsal diaphragm (isolates pericardial sinus from viscera), ostia (closeable holes) |
| accessory pulsatile organs | muscular pumps for legs, wings, antennae that supply these appendages with hemolymph |
| respiratory system | system that functions in gas exchange |
| trachea | air-filled tubes lined with cuticle |
| taenidia | spiral ridges/rings that give trachea strength |
| tracheoles | air- or fluid-filled tubes, lined with cuticle |
| open respiratory system | basal respiration spiracles, tracheae, tracheoles |
| closed respiratory system | modified respiration no spiracles |
| tracheal gills | modified respiration lamellate body extensions with tracheae mayfly larvae - plates on abdominal segments 1-7 dragonfly nymphs - diverticula (internal foldings) inside rectal chamber damselfly nymphs - caudal lamellae |
| plant tapping | modified respiration open tracheal system |
| gas gills | modified respiration open tracheal system |
| digestive system | system that functions wo process and assimilate nutrients from ingested food, and eliminate wastes |
| foregut, midgut, hindgut | 3 major regions of insect digestive system |
| foregut | lined with cuticle, shed with molting ingestion, food storage, grinding, transport |
| midgut | epithelial tissue |
| hindgut | lined with cuticle, shed with molting water and salts absorbed, feces (frass) eliminated |
| frass | term for insect feces |
| feeding | insect guts specialized to food resource |
| solid food | food resource for insects with wide, straight, short GI tract |
| liquid food | food resource for insects with long, narrow, convoluted GI tract that maximizes surface area and lacks abrasion protection food is low in nutrients, high in availability |
| saliva | fluid released from mouth of insect |
| endosymbionts | mutualistic organisms that live within the body or cells of another organism |
| Trichonympha sp. | flagellates inside termite guts that allow digestion of wood |
| excretory system | system that functions to maintain osmotic balance and remove nitrogenous wastes |
| uric acid | nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial insects |
| ammonia | nitrogenous waste excreted by aquatic insects |
| storage excretion | A process where toxins and metabolic waste products accumulate in connective tissues e.g., guanine in spiders, uric acid in butterflies (produces the color white) |
| Malpighian tubules | An excretory organ that is unique to insects, empties into digestive tract and removes nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph, also plays a role in osmoregulation blind-end tubes anterior to hindgut |
| rectal pads | thick epithelium used to reabsorb water |
| chloride cells | aquatic insect larvae extract inorganic ions from very dilute solutions |
| reproductive system | system that functions in the production of gametes and physiological regulation of growth and maturation |
| ovaries | female reproductive structure produce eggs |
| spermatheca | female reproductive structure stores sperm until fertilization |
| spermathecal gland | secretes proteins, etc. to maintain sperm viability in the spermatheca |
| testes | male reproductive structure produce sperm |
| seminal vesicle | male reproductive structure stores sperm |
| spermatophore | male reproductive structure sperm packet transferred to female |
| Sexual Reproduction | short lives = highly synchronized life history and behavior conventional sex roles: competitive males, choosy females Dependent on: anisogamy, operational sex ratio, environment |
| Swarming | aerial aggregation converge at visual marker |
| Lekking | substrate based resource defense aggregation example: fruit flies |
| Resource-based | meet where larvae will be deposited example: rotting fruit, dung |
| Pheromone-based | Females announce presence and receptivity example: moths Used in IPM (integrative pest management) |
| Courtship | important for: species recognition mate discrimination copulation receptivity |
| Visual displays | a potential component of courtship adorned body parts, ritualized movements example: stalk eyed fly, butterfly eyespots |
| Mechanical cues | touching or rubbing prior to mating acoustic/calling- auditory, vibration, stridulation |
| Nuptial gift | prevents female from limiting sperm transfer provides nourishment for female |
| Prey provisioning | a type of nuptial gift example: Mecoptera, butterflies (sodium) |
| Glandular product | a type of nuptial gift spermatophylax |
| Cannibalism | a type of nuptial gift example: mantids! |
| Dimorphism | differences in morphology between sexes |
| beetle horns | an example of sexual selection nutrition dependent- honest indicator |
| Indirect insemination | male leaves spermatophore on ground example: springtails, silverfish, bristletails |
| Direct insemination | aedeagus and endophallus accessory glands: seminal fluid, spermatophore creation, nuptial gift, induce behavior received in bursa copulatrix or spermatheca |
| Intersexual conflict | females evolve barriers and males evolve mechanisms to overcome barriers genitalic claspers prevent female from escaping example: traumatic insemination in bed bugs |
| Male-male competition | stratification- pushing old sperm to back of spermatheca scooping/flushing- sperm removal |
| Sperm competition | sperm of 2+ males compete sperm precedence- displacing previous ejaculate inhibit future matings via: plug (sphragis), prolonged copulation, mate guarding, refractory period |
| Cryptic choice | females control which sperm fertilize eggs |
| Sperm storage | spermatheca- female sperm storage spermathecal gland- secretions allow sperm to live for a prolonged period of time |
| Fertilization | eggs pass down oviduct sperm enter via micropyles- narrow canals in eggshell *release of sperm controlled tightly by females |
| Sex determination | main process in the evolutionary history of insects done by a single gene great variation in sex ratio during birth |
| Diploidy | males: XO females: XX |
| Haplodiploidy | males only have one set of chromosomes |
| Paternal genome elimination | from a fertilized egg, XO is inactive and eliminated |
| Oviparous | egg laying |
| Egg characteristics | penetrable- gas and nutrient exchange elastic- facilitates oviposition durable- protection from harm semipermeable- selective permeability |
| Ootheca | type of additional eggshell preventing embryos from drying colleterial glands produce a secretion (cement) |
| Viviparity | offspring formation starts within mother's body |
| Ovoviviparity | fertilized egg is incubated inside maternal body |
| Pseudoplacental viviparity | yolk deficient egg develops in the genital tract of the female. Placenta like tissue through which nutrients are passed to the egg. |
| Hemocoelous viviparity | embryo development fully inside maternal hemolymph, getting nutrients via osmosis |
| Adenotrophic viviparity | underdeveloped larvae are fed on liquids from "milk gland" and larvae pupate after being laid |
| Parthenogenesis | offspring develop from unfertilized eggs |
| Thelytokous parthenogenesis | development of diploid females form unfertilized eggs |
| Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis | development of diploid males from unfertilized egg |
| Amphitokous parthenogenesis | parthenogenetic egg may develop into individual of both sexes |
| Paedogenesis | parthenogenesis occurring in immature stages with loss of adult stage |
| Neoteny | process when larvae develop traits and reproductive structures typical for adults |
| Hermaphroditism | insect has both female and male reproductive organs |
| Polyembryony | asexual reproduction over 2 embryos from a single egg in tiny wasps, survivorship is low |
| Wolbachia spp. | feminization- males transform to females parthenogenesis- no males male killing- bacteria kills males cytoplasmic incompatibility- nonviable offspring produced |
| discontinuous growth | soft body parts may grow continuously, but selected parts can't expand, thus size increase depends on periodic molting example: caterpillar head capsule increases in size incrementally |
| Dyar's Rule | insect growth follows a geometric progression the proportion between instars is constant a/b= same for all instars |
| instars | the insect at a given stage of development between successive molts influenced by food avail, crowding, temp, sex |
| determinate growth | specific instar marks end of growth and molting most insects last instar= repro maturity |
| indeterminate growth | animal continues to molt until death adult size gen. doesn't increase |
| imago | reproductively mature individual |
| subimago | winged pre-adult (mayfly) cloudy wings, dense venation |
| anamorphosis | addition of segments primitive |
| simple metamorphosis | juveniles resemble adults |
| ametabolous | without change juvenile resembles adult almost exactly competition compound eyes similar ecology |
| paurometabolous | juveniles and adults have the same ecology minor morphological differences example: Hemiptera, Orthoptera |
| Hemimetabolous | juvenile is aquatic- naiad adult is terrestrial |
| complete metamorphosis (holometabolous) | juveniles radically different from adults different ecology, don't compete |
| Vermiform Larvae | worm-like no head capsule or appendages maggots |
| Campodeiform Larvae | dorsoventrally flattened cerci and antennae well developed active often carnivorous |
| Elateriform Larvae | cylindrical hard bodied burrowers- rotting wood or soil |
| Eruciform larvae | caterpillar like fleshy and cylindrical prolegs relatively sluggish often herbivorous |
| Scarabaeiform Larvae | grub like curved no prolegs sluggish often in soil or rotting wood many feed on plant roots |
| pupa | often a resting stage to survive harsh conditions protected within a cell or cocoon in most cases some taxa are unprotected |
| pharate adult | fully formed adult inside of pupal cuticle |
| teneral adult | newly emerged adult prior to melanization and sclerotization |
| obtect pupae | appendages cemented to body Lepidoptera |
| exarate pupae | appendages free from body |
| decticous pupae | pharate adult has articulating mandibles used to cut through cocoon |
| adecticous pupae | without articulating mandibles adult breaks free with legs and other appendages |
| Coarctate Pupae | exarate pupae enclosed in a puparium |
| puparium | sclerotized cuticle of last larval instar that provides a protective case for the pupa |
| ptilinum | membranous sac on fly he'd |
| quiescence | suspension of growth and development in direct response to an adverse environmental condition development resumes when conditions become favorable |
| diapause | arrested state of development in insects combined with adaptive physiological change development resumes in response to specific physiological stimuli, regardless of conditions genetically programmed a behavioral rhythm- short term cue has prolonged effect tracking resource in time |
| Voltinism | number of generations per year |
| Semivoltine | generation spans over one year periodical cicadas |
| Univoltine | one generation per year typical of temperate insect species with diapause |
| bivoltine | two generations per year spring and fall species |
| multivoltine | multiple generations per year small, fast developing species resources evenly distributed throughout the year |
| Extreme Environment Strategies | behavioral avoidance migration diapause in situ tolerance |
| cold effects | reduced water availability cell freezing |
| cryoprotection | any physiological mechanism to deal with the cold |
| freeze tolerance | doesn't guarantee survival, depends on minimum temperature, rapidity of onset fast onset= no acclimation possible |
| Ice Nucleating Agent (INA) | proteins, urates, etc. produced seasonally by onset of cold cause gentle formation of ice outside of cells dehydrates cells, prevents intracellular ice formation example: hemolymph, gut, Malpighian tubules |
| supercooling | body fluids stay liquid even though body temp is below freezing point (0 degrees C) glycerol, sugar, antifreeze proteins freeze at lower temperatures than water |
| Heat effects and tolerance | denatures proteins destroys membranes causes dehydration heat tolerance poorly understood, acclimation is important behavioral mechanisms: burrowing, erect posture, rapid locomotion |
| heat-shock proteins | assist with protein folding stress proteins example: desert ants- Cataglyphis |
| Cryptobiosis | reversible metabolic suspension common in lower invertebrates (tardigrades) example: African midges |
| aridity effects | overlaps with temperature stress dehydration- salt toxicity, loss of fluid most water loss occurs via evap @ cuticle, also @ spiracles and via excretory products |
| Desiccation avoidance | behavioral example: Nambian desert beetles- "fog basking" anatomical mechanisms: spiracles enclosed in humid pocket under elytra physiological- reduced Na in hemolymph (reduced Na pump activity) |
| Migration | tracking availability of resources in space persistent movement away from home range relatively straight movement on large scale distinctive pre and post movement behaviors reallocation of energy within body |
| pre-migration | energy storage cessation of repro wing devo (polymorphic species) triggered by env cues that predict onset of bad conditions navigation aids: sun compass, magnetic fields |
| Temperature effects on development | increased temps within limits speeds up metabolism as temp varies over life of insect, so does growth rate life of an insect best measured as physiological time, not calendar time |
| light effects on development | triggers rhythmic behaviors |
| photoperiod | day length duration of light phase triggers seasonal behaviors |
| circadian rhythms | biological clock triggers daily behaviors |
| humidity, toxins, crowding, food quality | other factors that affect development |
| Climate and development | |
| tactile, proprioception, sound | 3 types of mechanical stimuli |
| tactile | mechanical stimulus, touch |
| tactile receptors | setae, cuticular extensions |
| trichoid sensilla | Hair‑like (= seta), tri- for trichogen, tormogen, sensory neuron cells |
| trichogen cell | produces hair shaft |
| tormogen cell | produces hair socket |
| sensory neuron | dendrite that connects to hair |
| proprioception | mechanical stimulus |
| proprioception receptors | hair plate sensilla, stretch receptors, campaniform sensilla |
| hair plate sensilla | contact cuticle of adjacent body parts |
| stretch receptor | internal, detect muscle fiber length |
| campaniform sensilla | stress receptor |
| sound | mechanical stimulus |
| tympanum | modified cuticle for perception of airborne waves |
| stridulation, substrate vibration, tymbal, wings | 4 mechanisms of sound production |
| stridulation | Sound produced by dragging a row of peg-like structures across a file-like structure |
| substrate vibration | low-frequency noise produced by percussing on a substrate |
| tymbal | distortion and relaxation of specialized elastic cuticle |
| wings (sound) | use of wings produces sounds |
| thermoreception, thermoregulation | 2 aspects of thermal stimuli |
| thermoreception | receptors in antennae and legs |
| antennae, legs | location of thermoreceptors |
| poikilothermy | cannot maintain constant body temperature independent of ambient functions |
| basking | maximize heat uptake by modifying body posture or orientation relative to heat source |
| insulation | dense hairs prevent heat loss but allow heat gain from radiant sources |
| cooling | catch-all for shade-seeking, burrowing, stilting to thermoregulate |
| stilting | insect straightens its legs to push its abdomen as far off substrate as possible to escape the heat boundary layer at substrate's surface Reduces overheating |
| coloring, sculpturing, aquatic | 3 special cases of thermoregulation |
| coloring | color of insect interacts with radiant light source |
| sculpturing | air trapped in holes/pockets on insect surface (like golf ball dimples) create insulating air layer |
| aquatic (thermoregulation | aquatic insect body temperature matches water temperature |
| flight muscles, shivering | 2 types of physiological thermoregulation |
| flight muscles | physiological thermoregulation |
| shivering | physiological thermoregulation |
| chemoreception, pheromones, allelochemicals | 3 aspects of chemical stimuli |
| taste/smell | purpose of chemoreception |
| chmosensors | sensilla |
| semiochemical | any chemical that conveys a message |
| pheromones | substances secreted to environment by on individual to cause a specific reaction in a second individual OF THE SAME SPECIES produced by exocrine glands often cocktail of several chemicals and synergy common |
| releaser | semiochemical that causes a short-term behavioral response (e.g. mate attraction) |
| primer | semiochemical that causes a long-term physiological change (e.g. queen substance suppresses reproduction of workers) |
| sex pheromones | used in mate attraction (long-range) and courtship (close-range) |
| pest control | pheromones used in pest control of Japanese beetles, fruit flies traps use female pheromones, so only attract males - stupid false advertising (-_-) |
| Saturniidae | Lepidoptera |
| hair pencils | The Florida Queen male butterfly "dusts" the female Florida Queen with pheromone from these structures |
| aggregation pheromones | attract a large number of conspecifics hibernation recruitment (ladybird beetles, stinkbugs) host-seeking mechanism to overwhelm host defenses (beetles) cockroaches |
| spacing pheromones | anti aggregation pheromones to prevent crowding social insects for colony dispersion herbivores to deter competition |
| trail pheromones | chemicals placed along a walking trail for guidance of (typically) conspecifics volatile, short-lived, must be regularly replenished cursorial, social insects (ants, termites) not polar, so no directional orientation (ant "circle of death") |
| alarm pheromones | chemicals inducing fight or flight responses |
| parasites (eavesdropping) | can eavesdrop on pheromones of target organisms bolas spider, ants and associates (beetles, thysanurans, other ants, spiders) |
| allelochemicals | semiochemicals that direct members of other species classified based on consequences of producer and receiver |
| kairomones | allelochemical |
| allomones | allelochemical |
| synomones | allelochemical |
| visual stimuli | depends on: lens, photoreceptor, nervous system to detect images/movement/light and dark |
| lens | focuses light |
| photoreceptor | receives light stimulus |
| rhabdom | rod-like photoreceptor in insect eyes |
| nervous system | processes image from rhabdom (insect photoreceptor) |
| resolving power | ability to detect fine detail |
| sensitivity | |
| minimum | amount of light required to form image |
| dermal detection | receptors below cuticle |
| stemmata | simple eyes of holometabolous larvae lens and photoreceptor lenses are fixed, but each points in different direction high sensitivity, low acuity special case: tiger beetle larvae eyes form images |
| ocelli | function as horizon detection to control pitch and yaw of insect during flight occur in addition to compound eyes integrate light over large visual field hundreds of receptors converge on a single neuron high sensitivity, low acuity |
| compound eye | composed of ommatidia |
| ommatidia | cornea equivalent, crystalline cone lens and rhabdom, structural unit of compound eye |
| tapetum | The colorful, shiny choroid tissue located behind the rhabdom of nocturnal insects to allow night vision reflects light back through the retina. |
| bioluminescence | mate attraction, mimicry, prey attraction some insects have luminescent symbionts (Hemiptera, Collembola (I know, I know... not an insect)) |
| luciferin and luciferase | enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving oxygen produces light in animals luciferin (photoprotein) is oxidized |
| behavior | directed interaction with environment emergent property of nervous system biological rhythms |
| fixed action pattern, learning | 2 types of behavioral responses |
| fixed action pattern | genetically determined |
| learning | adaptive conditional response based on prior experience |
| orientation | movement relative to a stimulus kineses and taxes stimuli can dictate orientation |
| kineses | random, undirected movements |
| orthokinesis | The speed of the movement is related to intensity of stimulus |
| klinokinesis | The amount of random turning is related to the intensity of stimulus |
| taxes | movements in a specific direction in response to a stimulus e.g. positive phototaxis = going towards light |
| celestial, landmarks, chemicals | 3 types of orientation stimuli |
| communication | visual, chemical, auditory, tactile behaviors used to convey a message either same or different species color is widespread |
| foraging | food gathering herbivory, carnivory, saprophagy, omnivory, etc. can be determines from mouthpart morphology predation: sit-and-wait or active search optimal foraging theory |
| optimal foraging theory | theory that views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food |
| defense | behaviors that act as protection from harm autotomy, catalepsis, reflex bleeding, thanatosis, defense secretions, startle displays, mimicry |
| autotomy | the casting off of a part of the body by an insect/animal under threat |
| thanatosis | playing dead |
| catalepsis | reflex immobility |
| sociality | behaviors oriented towards group living |
| solitary | alone |
| subsocial | Exhibiting parental investment and, perhaps, other types of cooperation, but in the absence of overlapping adult generations (annual, not perennial, species) |
| eusocial | describes a complex social system in which there is division of labor or castes, cooperative brood care, and overlap of generations if one of these characteristics is missing, the species is considered subsocial |
| non-reproductive aggregation | aggregation that does not lead to reproduction e.g. Monarch butterflies |
| roosting aggregation | usually short term aggregation, often for overwintering or defense e.g. lady beetles |
| parental care without nesting | parental care given to offspring indirectly, usually through protective egg cases or extra nutrition e.g. cockroach ootheca |
| parental care with solitary nesting | cooperation between parents to provide parental care e.g. Silphidae beetle parents burying carcass |
| parental care with communal nesting | daughters nest in natal nest, allows antisocial or selfish behavior e.g. some subsocial bees |
| aphids | aggregation on resource and protect each other, but not social because no cooperation |
| queen | reproductive female |
| worker | non-reproductive individuals that assist reproductives may be monomorphic or polymorphic (minor, media, major) |
| soldiers | modified worker caste, used in offense and defense |
| brood | developing offspring |
| king | termites |
| gyne | reproductive females, queens |
| monogyny | dominated by one queen |
| polygyny | several functional queens |
| serial polygyny | successional patter of queens |
| haplodiploidy | females XX, males X cornerstone of why eusociality evolved sisters related 0.75 to each other, sister related to parents 0.50 |
| polyethism | an individual performing different tasks at different times in life, or differentiation into castes at different times in life e.g. ants: younger workers tend brood, older workers forage |
| polyphenism | workers derived from same genetic parents have different morphology or appearance (queen, worker, soldier) |
| kin selection | W.D. Hamilton evolutionary strategy reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction |
| group selection | selection operates at the level of the group |
| altruism | self-sacrifice in reproduction probably not real |
| alate | winged reproductive |
| trophogenic caste differentiation | diet determines role in colony |
| nuptial flights | mating flights |
| stomodeal trophallaxis | feeding brood by regurgitation |
| pleometrosis | colony foundation by more than one queen mega colonies |
| repletes | Specialized caste of ants that store honeydew in their abdomen for use by the nest Myrmecocystus spp. honeypot ants |
| bees | collect pollen and nectar for larval food |
| scopa | dense net of hairs adapted to collect pollen |
| corbicula | pollen basket on hind legs |
| corbicula, scopa | bee adaptations to pollen gathering |
| bee worker tasks | forage distribute food to larvae and adults clean cells, dispose of dead larvae ventilate nest guard and defend nest construct and repair nest |
| drones | male bees |
| origins of sociality in termites | common ancestor with cockroach no genetic predisposition toward kinship-based eusociality lack of intermediate stages in termite eusociality |
| gut symbionts | reliance on a nutrient-poor food source (wood) and adult longevity may facilitate social living trophallaxis and coprophagy transfer symbionts |
| trophallaxis, coprophagy | transfer symbionts to replenish supplies lost at each molt (termites lose gut symbiotes with each molt) |
| coprophagy | ingestion of feces |
| neotenics | supplementary reproductives that act as a "back up" |
| apterous nymphs | wingless nymphs |
| brachypterous nymphs | larvae with wing buds |
| pseudergate caste | "false workers" regressive molting when workers in short supply |
| proctodeal trophallaxis | Transfer of fluids among members of a community via anus to mouth feeding pheromones to inhibit reproduction are disseminated via this mechanism |
| Taxonomy | naming describing classification |
| Systematics | diversity and inter-relationships morphology used historically molecular DNA used currently |
| phylogenetic systematics | places inter-relationships in evolutionary context |
| synapomorphy | shared derived character used to decide what relationships are |
| monophyletic | share common ancestor |
| polyphyletic | a group that does not include its common ancestor |
| Insect evolution | closely tied to plant evolution arthropods evolved in the sea insects evolved from a terrestrial crustacean ancestor |
| Early Devonian Period | 400 mya earliest insect fossils: collembola existence of earlier fossils unlikely |
| Late devonian and early carboniferous | gap- 70my of poor fossil forming cond winged flight appears-evidence favors terrestrial origins |
| Late Carboniferous | 1st major diversification Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, psocoptera, orthoptera gymnosperms (conifers) |
| Permian Period | major radiation 30 orders present conifers dominate, plenty of nutritious pollen Coleoptera, diptera, Neuroptera, plecoptera gigantism- explained by possibility of higher O2 |
| Triassic Period through Jurassic Period | 220-140 mya many major taxa go extinct dinosaurs present, mammals appear |
| Cretaceous Period | 100 mya most extant orders are present major diversification within orders- small size, wings, metamorphosis, phytophagy flowering plants amber fossils biased towards active, flying, and forest dwelling taxa |
| primary orders | immature stages of almost all species are aquatic Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Trichoptera |
| secondary orders | Many families with aquatic representatives Coleoptera, Diptera, Megaloptera, Hemiptera |
| minor orders | a few specialized aquatic or semiaquatic taxa Neuroptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera |
| immature | generally the aquatic phase occurs in this life phase |
| tracheal system of Odonata and Ephemeroptera | evidence of terrestrial ancestry |
| cutaneous diffusion | oxygen uptake in small insects 1st instar diptera, trichopteran, Ephemeroptera |
| gills | tracheae lamella extensions of cuticle usually abdominal or caudal Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, trichopteran supplies over 20% of Oxygen demand |
| large surface area, moist, vascularized, ventillated | gill characteristics |
| hemoglobin in insects | has high oxygen affinity saturated by simple body motion O2 released when motion stops |
| hemoglobin in vertebrates | low oxygen affinity unloaded in acidic environment via Bohr effect carbonic acid created by CO2 in muscle |
| siphon | structure used to access water surface to breathe air used in poor sites ex: mosquito larvae |
| piercing organs | structure used to obtain oxygen from plants ex: Mansonia spp., Donacia spp. |
| compressible gills | the air bubble is held in contact with spiracles acts like a scuba tank break surface with shoulder or rear end as oxygen is depleted, more oxygen is diffused in from water |
| incompressible gills | air bubble held in contact with ventral spiracles velvety ventral exoskeleton- permanent physical gill sedentary beetle larvae |
| behavioral ventilation | low diffusion rate- low oxygen depletion around body undulate body inside tube or case to maintain water supply OR occupy high flow areas ex. black fly larvae |
| lotic habitat | flowing water influences substrate types, particle flow, oxygen high habitat heterogeneity |
| rheophilic species | flattened dorsoventrally, legs laterally projected, suckers, silk pads, drag lines, or catch nests, drift behavior |
| lentic habitat | standing water lower habitat heterogeneity |
| neustonic species | hydrofuge hairs, tarsal claws preapical, divided eyes, detergent propulsion, water striders |
| pelagic habitat | open water |
| limnetic | light penetration |
| profundal | dark, often anoxic |
| littoral habitat | shallow, light penetration, plant growth generally supports higher diversity |
| benthos | associated with both substrates |
| shredders | break up leaf litter and dead wood |
| collectors | filter feed soon suspended particles |
| scrapers | graze algae off of solid surfaces |
| predators | feed on all other FFGs |
| headwaters | shaded, coarse litter, shredders dominant |
| middle reaches | open canopy, fine and coarse litter, algae, riffle pool sequences, highest FFG diversity |
| lower reaches | open canopy, algae, macrophytes |
| no flowers | why are insects not in the ocean? |
| Herbivory, Reproduction, Habitat, Mutualism, Predation | Types of interactions btw insects and plants (5) |
| smooth surfaces, greater exposure, low nutrients, defenses | challenges of insects interacting with plants |
| pairwise | specific trait in 1 species is linked to trait in 2nd species arms races tight mutualism- codependence |
| diffuse | guild reciprocal evolutionary changes among groups of species 1 plant trait may target several unrelated insect species (herbivores or pollinators) |
| Coevolution | reciprocal interactions over evolutionary time |
| Phytophagy | herbivory |
| Monophagy | feed on one plant species many gall forming wasps |
| oligophagy | feeding on a few species |
| Polyphagy | feeding on many spp. |
| Physical defenses | trichomes, spines, silica, toughness |
| chemical defenses | secondary compounds, allelochemicals |
| qualitative | toxic in small doses (alkaloids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides) |
| quantitative | toxicity depends on amount ingested (tannins, resins) |
| Plant Apparency Hypothesis | Apparent plants use quantitative compounds that know they will be found. Unapparent plants use qualitative compounds and are harder to find. |
| chewers, miners, borers, suckers, gall-makers, seed predators | types of herbivores (6) |
| Hyperplasia | increase in number of cells |
| Anemophily | wind pollination |
| Entomophily | insect pollination |
| targeted delivery, minimal waste, increased local diversity | benefits of insect pollination to plant (3) |
| pollen, nectar, source of prey, source of mates | benefits of flowers to insects |
| cantharophily | beetle pollination white, showy, bowl shaped, pungent, nectaries accessible, ovaries protected |
| myophily | fly pollination pungent |
| Sphecophily | wasp pollination |
| myrmecophily | ant pollination |
| small, smooth bodied, limited spatial activity, flightless, metapleural gland secretions damage pollen | why ants are poor pollinators (5) |
| Melitophily | pollination by bees nectar guides |
| phaelaenophily | moth pollination flowers white, tubular, sweet smelling, pendant, crepuscular or nocturnal |
| psychophily | butterfly pollination flowers red, blue, or yellow |
| myrmecochory | seed dispersal by ants |
| Elaisosomes | food bodies |
| Phytotelmata | water held in plant cavity |
| mutualism | interaction between 2 species, both benefit, often symbiotic, reciprocal exchange of good or services, typically involves the evolution of novel traits in 1/both species |
| Carnivorous plants | poor acidic soil prey = N source Sarracenia, Pinguicula, Drosera, Dionaea, Utricularia |
| 25 | the percentage of insect species that are predacious/parasitic at some life stage |
| predator | organism that kills and consumes another organism |
| predation | the interaction in space and time between predator foraging activity and prey availability |
| parasite | organism that lives at the expense of the other |
| parasitoid | parasite that kills host |
| easy to keep, easy to observe, short lifespan, pest control, easy to model | why study predation in insects? |
| optimal foraging theory | balancing costs and benefits of obtaining resources to maximize energy gain and minimize effort (handling time) |
| sit and wait | foraging strategy |
| trap | foraging strategy |
| active search | foraging strategy |
| random | feeding pattern depends on prey encounter rates ladybug larvae |
| targeted | foraging strategy find prey based on specific cues |
| visual | often the first cue in targeted foraging appropriate size, shape, color? |
| chemical | kairomones- predator follows reproductive pheromones, frass, or other signal of prey synomones- predator follows stress chemical of plant, leading to prey |
| Tritrophic interactions | plant defense against herbivory- ecological impact of three trophic levels: the plant, the herbivore and predator of herbivore |
| sound | cue in targeted foraging ex. midges whose host is a frog (mating call) |
| phoresy | hitchhiking facilitates finding new hosts |
| aposematism | warning colorations that advertise defenses |
| crypsis | camouflage |
| catalepsis | playing dead |
| mimicry | The resemblance of one species to another species |
| Mullerian mimicry | many unpalatable species resemble each other predators learn one negative signal, multiple prey species benefit Muller (1879) |
| Batesian mimicry | a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful model Bates (1862) |
| aggressive mimicry | when a predator mimics a harmless or desirable species |
| chemical defenses | reflexive bleeding bombardier beetles osmeterium- red stinky gland that caterpillars can have |
| masting | synchronous production of progeny satiate predators and allow some young to survive |
| autotomy | shedding of a body part when attacked |
| Nuisance Insects | generally benign culturally linked with uncleanliness high densities cockroaches, ants, bedbugs, fleas, etc. |
| Entomophobia | fear of insects insects are leggy, fast, aggressive, and concealed |
| Delusory Parasitosis | An unshakable false belief that live organisms (usually insects or mites) are present in or on the skin or home |
| sting | defensive mechanism, deliver venom bees: barbed, single use wasps + ants: smooth, repeated use *often reduced or modified in ants |
| blistering (Cantharidin) | blister beetles (Meloidae) Spanish Fly- irritates mucous membranes, acts as viagra |
| blistering (Paederin) | rove beetles (staphylinidae: Paederus sp.) delayed blistering and ulceration |
| urtication | venom filled spines or toxic setae stinging nettles: urticaceae barbed hairs Lepidoptera |
| allergic disease | excessive immune response to a compound (protein) can be induced by frequent contact bakers itch- mites on stored grain |
| anaphylaxis | may occur in sensitized people previously exposed and allergy prone |
| pediculosis | infestation with lice, Pediculus humans |
| Scabies | Sarcoptes scabiei |
| Myiasis | primary or secondary infestation by fly larvae American Civil War- prevented death and amputation Maggot therapy- Maya, Aborigines |
| vector | transmit pathogens from host to host |
| mechanical | accidental transmission blood on proboscis, feces on tarsi often related to poor hygeine |
| biological | specific association between pathogen, vector, and host all required for transfer pathogen often replicates inside vector most control efforts focus on vector |
| arbovirus | arthropod borne virus virus infects cells and replicates, 10+ days |
| Typhus | vector: body lice pathogen: Rickettsia (bacteria) fever, rash, malaise up to 60% mortality infect louse epithelial cells, occurs in feces feces scratched into wound |
| Plague | vector: flea primary host: rodent pathogen: Yersinia pestis (bacteria) up to 90% mortality infection blocks flea midgut |
| Leishmaniasis | pathogen: Leishmania (protist) vector: sand fleas, Phlebotomus eukaryotic- hard to kill, similar to own cells |
| Chagas | pathogen: Trypanosoma cruzi (protist) vector: kissing bug neotropical |
| Sleeping Sickness | Pathogen: Typanosoma (protist) Vector: Tsetse fly tropical Africa attacks human CNS- upsets sleep cycle, can cause coma and death |
| Malaria | Pathogen: Plasmodium (protist) Vector: Anopheles mosquito 4 species infect humans pan tropical Host: humans, birds, lizards |
| Nematodes | filarial worms |
| Filariasis | Pathogen: Wuchereria bancrofti (nematode) vector: mosquito infects lymphatic system causes elephantiasis treat with deworming drugs |
| River Blindness | Pathogen: Onchocerca volvulus (nematode) migrate to cornea |
| Malaria life cycle | plasmodium gametocytes reproduce in mosquito gut. spoozoites released into salivary glands of mosquito and are injected into new peron when mosquito feeds. sporozites migrate from blood to liver in person. sporozites mature into merozites and infect erythrocytes. merozites reproduce in erthrocytes and burst cell (causing anaemia). These merozites and taken into mosquito when it feeds on infected person. |
| forensic entomology | the application of the study of insects and other arthropods to legal matters |
| important carrion feeders, development is temperature dependent, abundant and diverse at small scales, relatively easy to study and collect | why arthropods? |
| Post Mortem Interval (PMI) | the time that has elapsed since a person has died |
| determination of PMI, determination of death location | applications of forensic entomology |
| necrophily | attraction to dead flesh |
| antemortem | preceding death some flies infest live tissues on a wound |
| blow flies (Calliphoridae), flesh flies (Sarcophagidae), muscid flies (Muscidae) | insects almost always first to arrive |
| species differ by region, habitat, and season | Importance of blow flies |
| abundant in cool weather | blue bottle flies (Calliphora vicina) |
| abundant in warm weather, sun | green bottle flies (Phaenicia sericata), (Lucilla illustri) |
| abundant in shade | black blow flies (Phormia regina) |
| beetles | insects active weeks postmortem |
| dermestid beetles, clothes moths | insects active months postmortem |
| most crimes occur at night, flies oviposit as soon as they discover the body, faunal succession predictable, weather conditions recorded reflect local weather conditions, ambient air temperature is the primary factor influencing rate of maggot development | PMI Determination Assumptions |
| senescence | the condition or process of deterioration with age |
| luciferase | enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin that produces bioluminescence found in fireflies, snails, fungi, etc. |
| stabilimentum | a conspicuous silk structure included in the webs of some species of orb-web spider. Function is debatable, but hypothesized to be a warning to birds to not fly through the web |
| gravitropism | growth or movement of an organism in response to gravity (positive gravitropism = growth w/ gravity, aka down) |
| exaptation | shaping of a useful feature of an organism by natural selection to perform one function and the later reshaping of it by different selection pressures to perform a new function |
| hypotonic | When comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes. Referring to a solution that, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to take up water. |
| totipotent | Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell. |
| pedicellaria | on the surface of some echinoderms, very small pincers that are used for protection against ectoparasites |
| cyclomorphosis | the occurrence of cyclic or seasonal changes in the phenotype of an organism through successive generations |
| seasonal polyphenism | A phenomenon seen in some insects that go through two or more generations per year, in which genetically identical individuals can assume two or more discrete, highly distinct body forms depending on the season during which they develop. |
| small size, complex sensory system, short generation time, coevolution, metamorphosis, wings | 6 factors as to why insect diversity is so high |
| Yves Basset | 2012 paper found 25k spp. in 600 ha plot on BCI 60% of spp in 1 ha implies global average closer to 10 million than 30 million STRI staff scientist |
| hemimetabolous | Incomplete metamorphosis where the immature resemble the adults but some features are missing or different (wings, reproductive organs, color, shape, etc.). |
| runaway selection | creates exaggerated traits through a positive feedback loop with female choice for males with extreme traits (male peacock feathers) |
| synergetic semiochemicals | the response of two semiochemicals is larger than expected than if you just add them together |
| holometabolous | Complete metamorphosis |
| overheating | in insects, this causes denaturation of proteins, destroys membranes, and causes dehydration/desiccation |
| monophyly | a group including all the descendants of a common ancestor |
| paraphyly | a group with an ancestor and only some of its descendants |
| polyphyly | a group that does not uniquely share a common ancestor |
| endotherm | can regulate body temperature individual of ambient temp fluctuations |
| ectotherm | dependent on external sources of body heat |
| homeotherm | An animal that maintains a controlled internal body temperature using its own heating and cooling mechanisms |
| sexual selection | selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics of the other sex |
| neustonic | refer to the region on or just below the surface of water e.g., water striders are __________ because they can walk on water |
Created by:
PRO Teacher
Timema