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Rhetorical Handbook
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Style | Manner of expression of a writer, produced by choice of words, grammatical structures, use of literary devices, and all the parts of language use. Some general styles include scientific, ornate, plain, and emotive. Most writers have their own styles. |
| Diction | An author’s choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since one’s choice of words can affect feelings, a writer’s choice of words can have great impact in a literary work. |
| Connotation | An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing. |
| Denotation | Literal definition of a word. |
| Pedantic | Language that is academic sounding, characterized by a narrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules. |
| Simple | Pure, easy, plain, basic language. |
| Didactic | Used for literary texts which are filled with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful details. This type of writing is typically "preachy" and dull, and may seem more targeted for erudite readers than a common audience. |
| Literal | What you see. |
| Figurative | What you get from language, tone, symbol, etc. |
| Active | Subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action rather than a state of being. |
| Passive | Subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb. |
| Overstated | Exaggerated. |
| Understated | Expressed with restraint, lack of emphasis. |
| Colloquial | Informal, conversational language. |
| Formal | Formal, proper language. |
| Non-Standard | Not adhering to the standard, usually associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups. |
| Slang | Informal language associated with a particular group or context. |
| Jargon | Specialized language used by a particular profession or group. |
| Syntax | The way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical structure |
| Repetition | One key element of syntax is the use of repetition—of words, phrases, and punctuation. The repetition can often have a major connection to the rhetorical purpose of the passage. |
| Genre | A literary genre is a recognizable and established category of written work employing such common conventions as will prevent readers or audiences from mistaking it with another kind. |
| Allusion | An indirect or passing reference to some event, person, place, or artistic work, the nature and relevance of which is not explained by the writer but relies on the reader’s familiarity with what is thus mentioned |
| Ambiguity | Something of doubtful meaning; an expression whose meaning cannot be determined from its context, may have more than one meaning |
| Anecdote | A brief account of a particular incident, a story that can be personal or observed. |
| Analogy | The presentation of two things as similar based on common attributes, often used to explain an unfamiliar subject using objects and concepts that are more familiar to an audience. |
| Anaphora | Repetition of single words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of sentences to emphasize or create urgency. |
| Antithesis | A contrast of ideas presented in parallel grammatical structure. |
| Aphorism | A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation. |
| Asyndeton | A writing style where conjunctions are omitted in a series of words, phrases or clauses to place emphasis and meaning equally on the listed words/ideas. |
| Enthymeme | A form of logical construction developed by Aristotle in which part of the syllogism is removed, focusing on the premise and conclusion. |
| Euphemism | A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. |
| Fallacies | A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument. |
| Hyperbole | Gross exaggeration not to be taken literally. |
| Hypotheticals | Creating a scenario based on a theory or idea. |
| Invective | Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe, condemnation). |
| Juxtaposition | Placing two things side by side, usually to show contrast. |
| Malapropism | An incorrect usage of a word, usually with comic effect. |
| Paradox | A seemingly absurd or self-contradictory statement or proposition that when investigated or explained may prove to be well founded or true. |
| Parallelism | Phrases placed in the same grammatical structure. |
| Polysyndeton | A stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve a sense that what’s being discussed goes on and on and on. |
| Rhetorical Question | A question posed by the speaker or writer not to seek an answer but instead to affirm or deny a point simply by asking a question about it. |
| Sensory Detail | An item used to appeal to the senses (sight, taste, etc.). |
| Shift | A general term in linguistics for any slight alteration in a word’s meaning, or the creation of an entirely new word by changing the use of an expression. |
| Syllogism | The base of logical construction. |
| Tone | The writer’s attitude towards the reader and his subject; his mood or moral view. |
| Tone Shift | A change in tone throughout a work as the narrator’s perspective changes, or as the plot becomes more complex, dramatic, bizarre, etc. There also may be more than one tone that an author takes toward a work at the same time. |
| Perspective | The point of view of the rhetor/speaker of the argument. There may be a shift in perspective. |
| Purpose | WHY the argument was written—what does the writer hope to achieve by writing the argument. |
| Theme/Thesis | The message conveyed in a literary work. |
| Voice | The textual features, such as diction and sentence structure, that convey a writer or speaker’s persona. |
| Apostrophe | A figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent person, a nonhuman object, or an abstract idea as if it could respond. |
| Cliché | An overused expression or idea that has lost its originality or impact. |
| Imagery | Descriptive language that appeals to the senses to help the audience vividly imagine a scene or experience. |
| Verbal Irony | Saying one thing while intentionally meaning the opposite. |
| Situational Irony | A contrast between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. |
| Extended Metaphor | A metaphor that is developed and sustained over multiple sentences or throughout a larger portion of a work. |
| Oxymoron | Combines two contradictory words for effect. |
| Personification | Giving human qualities or abilities to animals, objects, or abstract ideas. |
| Pun | A play on words that exploits multiple meanings or similar sounds for humorous or rhetorical effect. |
| Simile | A comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as." |
| Audience | The people the author is speaking to (listeners, readers, onlookers). |
| Ethos (ethical) | A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer's credibility. |
| Pathos (emotion) | The emotional appeal to an audience in an argument. |
| Logos (rational) | Rhetorical appeals based on logic or reasoning. |
| Rhetorical Occasion | The components that impact the reason for creating the argument (audience, speaker/rhetor, context, exigence, and purpose). |
| Exigence | Compels the rhetor to create the purpose for the argument and will be impacted by context, audience, and speaker/rhetor. |
| Claim | To make an assertion, to state as true. |
| Deductive Reasoning | Reasoning that utilizes elements of persuasion by asserting a claim and consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. |
| Inductive Reasoning | Reasoning that begins with specific instances or examples and shows how they collectively support a general principle. |
| Line of Reasoning | The formal structure or arrangement of an argument that leads to the conclusion. |
| Evidence/Data | Support for a claim/assertion. |
| Warrant | An assumption that there is a connection between evidence and the claim. |
| Counterargument | A direct opposing argument to the argument created. |
| Concession | An acknowledgement that an opposing argument has value while maintaining the validity of your own argument. |
| Rebuttal | A refutation of an argument presented. |
| Expository | Informs, instructs, or presents ideas and general truths. |
| Classification | Identifies the subject as part of a larger group with shared features. |
| Cause/Effect | Arguing from the presence/ absence of the cause of the (non)existence of the result. |
| Compare/Contrast | The subject is shown more clearly by pointing out similarities/differences. |
| Definition | Places the subject in a group and then differentiates the subject from other sections of the group. |
| Analysis | The discussion of a subject based on content and style. |
| Description | Depicts images verbally in space and time, arranges those images in a logical pattern |
| Narration | Organizes the events or actions in time or relates them in space. Tells what happened, when it happened, and where. |
| Persuasion/Argument | Convinces an audience by proving or refuting a point of view using induction or deduction. |
| Allegory | A form of extended metaphor in which objects and persons in a narrative are equated with meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. |
| Autobiography | The biography of a person written by that person. |
| Biography | An account of a person’s life as written or told by another. |
| Memoir | The story of a part of a person’s life, written by that person. Unlike an autobiography, a memoir does not try to capture the person’s whole life and instead focuses on a more narrow segment of time. |
| Chronicle | An extended account of historical events without interpretation or comment. |
| Diary | A daily written record of (usually personal) experiences and observations. |
| Essay | A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author, analytic or interpretive. |
| Fiction | A literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact. |
| Nonfiction | A work that draws its information from history or fact, rather than the imagination. |
| Parody | A literary form in which the style of an author or particular work is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect. |
| Prose | Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech. |
| Satire | A literary work which exposes and ridicules human vices or folly. Historically perceived as tending towards didacticism, it is usually intended as a moral criticism directed against the injustice of social wrongs. |
| Sermon | An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. |
| Stream of Consciousness | Tool that records the multifarious thoughts and feelings of a character without regard to logical or narrative sequence. Writer tries by stream of consciousness to reflect all the forces, external and internal, influencing psychology of a character. |
| Editorial | An article in a newspaper or other periodical or on a website presenting the opinion of the publisher, writer, or editor. |
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