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developmetn
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Erikson | Proposed eight psychosocial stages covering the entire lifespan. |
| Psychosocial crisis | A developmental conflict between two opposing tendencies. |
| Virtue | A psychological strength gained after successfully resolving a psychosocial crisis. |
| Lifelong development | Erikson believed development continues from infancy through late adulthood. |
| Favorable ratio | Healthy development requires more of the positive tendency, not complete elimination of the negative. |
| Unresolved psychosocial crisis | A conflict that may return and interfere with later development. |
| Erikson and Freud | Erikson expanded Freud's theory by emphasizing social and cultural influences. |
| Hope | Virtue gained from Trust vs. Mistrust. |
| Will | Virtue gained from Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. |
| Purpose | Virtue gained from Initiative vs. Guilt. |
| Competence | Virtue gained from Industry vs. Inferiority. |
| Fidelity | Virtue gained from Identity vs. Role Confusion. |
| Love | Virtue gained from Intimacy vs. Isolation. |
| Care | Virtue gained from Generativity vs. Stagnation. |
| Wisdom | Virtue gained from Integrity vs. Despair. |
| Trust vs. Mistrust key question | Can I trust the world? |
| Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt key question | Can I act independently? |
| Initiative vs. Guilt key question | Is it acceptable for me to act and take initiative? |
| Industry vs. Inferiority key question | Can I succeed and develop useful skills? |
| Identity vs. Role Confusion key question | Who am I and what can I become? |
| Intimacy vs. Isolation key question | Can I love and be loved? |
| Generativity vs. Stagnation key question | Can I make my life meaningful? |
| Integrity vs. Despair key question | Was my life meaningful and worthwhile? |
| Psychosocial moratorium | A period of identity exploration before committing to roles and values. |
| Kohlberg | Developed a theory of moral reasoning with three levels and six stages. |
| Moral reasoning | The thinking used to decide whether an action is right or wrong. |
| Kohlberg's method | Evaluated the reasoning behind moral decisions rather than the final answer. |
| Heinz dilemma | A scenario asking whether Heinz should steal an expensive drug to save his wife. |
| Pre-conventional level | Morality based on punishment, reward, and personal benefit. |
| Punishment and Obedience stage | Actions are judged by whether they lead to punishment. |
| Instrumental Purpose and Exchange stage | Actions are judged by personal benefit or fair exchange. |
| Conventional level | Morality based on social approval, rules, and maintaining order. |
| Good Boy/Good Girl stage | Behavior is guided by approval and being viewed as a good person. |
| Law and Order stage | Behavior is guided by laws, duty, and maintaining social order. |
| Post-conventional level | Morality based on personal ethical principles that may exceed written laws. |
| Social Contract and Individual Rights stage | Laws should protect rights and may be changed when they are unjust. |
| Universal Ethical Principles stage | Moral choices follow universal principles such as justice and respect for life. |
| Stage 6 | A largely theoretical stage that few people consistently reach. |
| Pre-conventional age group | Most common in children younger than about nine years. |
| Conventional age group | Most common in adolescents and adults. |
| Post-conventional age group | Reached by only a minority of adults. |
| Punishment and Obedience example | Heinz should not steal because he may go to jail. |
| Instrumental Exchange example | Heinz should steal because his wife may repay him with love. |
| Good Boy/Good Girl example | Heinz should steal because a good husband protects his wife. |
| Law and Order example | Heinz should not steal because laws must be followed. |
| Social Contract example | Human life is more important than property, so the law should be changed. |
| Universal Principles example | Stealing is justified because protecting human life is a universal moral duty. |
| Carol Gilligan | Criticized Kohlberg for focusing mainly on male participants and justice-based reasoning. |
| Ethics of care | Moral reasoning emphasizing relationships, responsibility, and compassion. |
| Justice orientation | Moral reasoning emphasizing rules, rights, fairness, and abstract principles. |
| Gilligan's first care stage | Focus on personal survival and self-interest. |
| Gilligan's second care stage | Focus on self-sacrifice and caring for others. |
| Gilligan's third care stage | Balance care for oneself with care for others. |
| Gender bias criticism | Kohlberg's original research included only male participants. |
| Cultural bias criticism | Kohlberg's hierarchy favors Western individualistic values. |
| Collectivist moral reasoning | May value community harmony and responsibility over individual rights. |
| Moral reasoning versus behavior | Advanced moral thinking does not guarantee moral action. |
| Stage sequence criticism | The six-stage order may not appear universally across cultures. |
| Dilemma methodology criticism | Hypothetical dilemmas may not represent real-life moral decisions. |
| Walker | Researcher whose work found only small gender differences in moral reasoning. |
| Jaffee and Hyde | Researchers whose meta-analysis found gender differences in moral reasoning were small. |
| Justice versus care conclusion | Differences may depend more on the situation than on gender. |
| Community harmony | A collectivist value that may emphasize cooperation and social responsibility. |
| Moral behavior | The actions a person actually takes in a moral situation. |
| Moral judgment | A person's decision about what is morally right or wrong. |
| Post-conventional reasoning | Reasoning that evaluates laws using broader principles of rights and justice. |
| Universal moral principle | A general ethical rule believed to apply to all people. |
| Individual rights | Basic freedoms and protections that should be respected by society. |
| Social contract | The idea that laws exist by agreement to protect people and society. |
| Life Span Development | Study of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes from conception to death. |
| Prenatal development | Development before birth consisting of germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages. |
| Germinal stage | 0-2 weeks; zygote forms, rapid mitosis occurs, and implantation happens around days 10-14. |
| Zygote | Single fertilized cell formed when sperm and egg unite. |
| Mitosis | Rapid cell division producing identical cells for growth. |
| Implantation | Attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall around days 10-14. |
| Blastocyst | Early embryo that develops into the embryo and supporting structures. |
| Embryonic disk | Structure that develops into the embryo. |
| Embryonic stage | 2-8 weeks; organogenesis occurs and major organs begin forming. |
| Organogenesis | Formation of all major organ systems during the embryonic stage. |
| Neural tube | Embryonic structure that develops into the brain and spinal cord. |
| Neural tube closure | Occurs around week 4 and is critical for normal nervous system development. |
| Embryonic vulnerability | Embryonic stage is the most vulnerable period for structural birth defects. |
| Fetal stage | 8-40 weeks; rapid growth, maturation, and organ refinement occur. |
| Age of viability | Approximately 22-26 weeks when survival outside the womb becomes possible with medical care. |
| Myelination (prenatal) | Begins during the third trimester and improves nerve signal transmission. |
| Cephalocaudal principle | Development proceeds from head to toe. |
| Proximodistal principle | Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. |
| End of embryonic period | Embryo is recognizably human and about 1 inch long. |
| Brain development at birth | Brain is about 25% of adult weight. |
| Brain development at age 2 | Brain reaches about 75% of adult weight. |
| Synaptic overproduction | Large increase in synapses during early childhood. |
| Synaptic pruning | Unused neural connections are eliminated through the "use it or lose it" process. |
| Use it or lose it | Frequently used neural pathways are strengthened while unused ones are removed. |
| Myelination | Formation of a myelin sheath that speeds nerve conduction; continues into the mid-20s. |
| Experience-expectant development | Brain expects universal experiences like vision and language for normal development. |
| Experience-dependent development | Unique personal experiences shape individual neural connections. |
| Motor milestones | Typical sequence of motor skill development during infancy and childhood. |
| Head control | Develops around 2-4 months. |
| Rolling over | Typically occurs around 2-4 months. |
| Reaching | Fine motor skill emerging around 2-4 months. |
| Grasping | Early fine motor skill developing around 2-4 months. |
| Sitting without support | Typically develops around 6-8 months. |
| Transferring objects | Passing objects from one hand to the other around 6-8 months. |
| Crawling | Usually develops around 9-12 months. |
| Pulling to stand | Usually develops around 9-12 months. |
| First steps | Typically occur around 9-12 months. |
| Pincer grasp | Using thumb and forefinger to pick up small objects around 9-12 months. |
| Walking well | Usually develops around 18-24 months. |
| Running | Begins around 18-24 months. |
| Stacking blocks | Fine motor milestone around 18-24 months. |
| Scribbling | Early drawing skill emerging around 18-24 months. |
| Cross-cultural variation in motor development | Motor milestone timing varies across cultures because of different child-rearing practices. |
| Attachment theory | Theory that early relationships with caregivers shape emotional and social development. |
| John Bowlby | Proposed attachment is an evolved survival mechanism. |
| Ethological theory of attachment | Attachment is biologically programmed to promote infant survival. |
| Attachment | Strong emotional bond between an infant and caregiver. |
| Sensitive period (attachment) | Approximately 6-24 months when attachment forms most easily. |
| Secure base | Caregiver provides safety that allows a child to explore the environment. |
| Internal working model | Mental representation of self and others based on early attachment experiences. |
| Monotropy hypothesis | Bowlby's idea that infants form one primary attachment. |
| Mary Ainsworth | Developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment styles. |
| Strange Situation | Laboratory procedure using separations and reunions to identify attachment styles. |
| Secure attachment | Uses caregiver as a secure base, distressed by separation, easily comforted at reunion. |
| Secure caregiver pattern | Sensitive and responsive caregiving. |
| Anxious-avoidant attachment | Shows little distress at separation and avoids caregiver at reunion. |
| Avoidant caregiver pattern | Rejecting or emotionally unavailable caregiver. |
| Anxious-resistant attachment | Very distressed at separation and both seeks and resists comfort at reunion. |
| Ambivalent attachment | Another name for anxious-resistant attachment. |
| Resistant caregiver pattern | Inconsistent caregiver responsiveness. |
| Disorganized attachment | Contradictory or confused behaviors toward caregiver. |
| Disorganized caregiver pattern | Often associated with frightening or abusive caregiving. |
| Main and Solomon | Researchers who added the disorganized attachment category. |
| Disorganized attachment outcome | Most strongly associated with later psychopathology. |
| Thomas and Chess | Researchers who studied infant temperament. |
| New York Longitudinal Study | Long-term study that identified temperament types. |
| Temperament | Biologically based differences in emotional and behavioral style. |
| Easy temperament | Regular routines, positive mood, adaptable, moderate reactions. |
| Easy temperament prevalence | Approximately 40% of children. |
| Difficult temperament | Irregular routines, intense reactions, slow adaptation, negative mood. |
| Difficult temperament prevalence | Approximately 10% of children. |
| Slow-to-warm-up temperament | Low activity, cautious, gradually adapts to new situations. |
| Slow-to-warm-up prevalence | Approximately 15% of children. |
| Unclassified temperament | About 35% of children do not fit the three main categories. |
| Goodness of fit | Development depends on how well parenting matches a child's temperament. |
| Harry Harlow | Demonstrated the importance of contact comfort using rhesus monkeys. |
| Rhesus monkey experiments | Studies showing infants preferred comfort over food. |
| Contact comfort | Physical comfort is a major basis for attachment. |
| Cloth mother | Soft surrogate mother preferred by infant monkeys. |
| Wire mother | Provided milk but little comfort; less preferred. |
| Isolation studies | Monkeys raised alone developed severe social and emotional deficits. |
| Drive-reduction theory | Theory stating attachment forms because caregivers provide food. |
| Hull's drive-reduction theory | Theory challenged by Harlow's findings. |
| Animal research ethics | Harlow's experiments contributed to stricter ethical standards. |
| Puberty | Period of sexual maturation triggered by hormonal changes. |
| Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis | Hormonal system controlling puberty. |
| GnRH | Hormone released by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary. |
| LH | Pituitary hormone that stimulates the gonads. |
| FSH | Pituitary hormone that promotes reproductive development. |
| Gonads | Ovaries or testes that produce sex hormones. |
| Adrenarche | Increase in adrenal androgen production around ages 6-8. |
| Gonadarche | Activation of the gonads around ages 9-14. |
| Menarche | First menstrual period, usually around age 12.5. |
| Secular trend | Puberty has begun at younger ages over the past century. |
| Early maturation in girls | Associated with higher risk of depression, substance use, and early sexual activity. |
| Early maturation in boys | Associated with mixed positive and negative outcomes. |
| Identity vs. Role Confusion | Erikson's adolescent stage focused on developing a stable identity. |
| Role confusion | Uncertainty about one's identity and future role. |
| Adolescent identity exploration | Process of exploring values, beliefs, and goals before commitment. |
| Psychosocial moratorium | Temporary period of exploration before making adult commitments. |
| Marcia's identity statuses | Four identity outcomes based on exploration and commitment. |
| James Marcia | Expanded Erikson's theory into four identity statuses. |
| Identity achievement | Exploration completed and firm commitments made. |
| Moratorium (Marcia) | Currently exploring but not yet committed. |
| Foreclosure | Commitment made without prior exploration. |
| Identity diffusion | Neither exploring nor committed. |
| Identity statuses | Flexible categories; people can move between them over time. |
| Healthiest identity status | Moratorium is considered the healthiest transitional status. |
| Adolescent egocentrism | Cognitive tendency to focus excessively on oneself during adolescence. |
| David Elkind | Psychologist who described adolescent egocentrism. |
| Imaginary audience | Belief that everyone is constantly watching and judging you. |
| Personal fable | Belief that one's experiences are unique and that one is invulnerable. |
| Imaginary audience outcome | Leads to increased self-consciousness. |
| Personal fable outcome | Contributes to risk-taking behavior. |
| Emerging adulthood | Developmental period from about ages 18-25 characterized by exploration and transition. |
| Jeffrey Jensen Arnett | Psychologist who proposed the concept of emerging adulthood. |
| Identity exploration (Arnett) | Exploring love, work, and personal beliefs during emerging adulthood. |
| Instability | Frequent changes in jobs, relationships, or residence during emerging adulthood. |
| Self-focus | Freedom to make independent choices with fewer social obligations. |
| Feeling in-between | Feeling neither like an adolescent nor a fully independent adult. |
| Possibilities/optimism | Belief that many positive life paths remain open. |
| Criticism of emerging adulthood | May apply mainly to industrialized societies with prolonged education. |
| Physical aging | Gradual biological changes that occur throughout adulthood. |
| Senescence | The biological process of aging beginning in the late 20s. |
| Telomeres | Protective chromosome ends that shorten with each cell division. |
| Telomere shortening | A biological marker associated with aging. |
| Presbyopia | Age-related farsightedness beginning around age 40. |
| Presbycusis | Age-related hearing loss, especially for high-frequency sounds. |
| Menopause | Permanent cessation of menstruation due to declining estrogen and progesterone. |
| Fluid intelligence | Ability to solve new problems and process information quickly. |
| Fluid intelligence peak | Peaks in the mid-20s then gradually declines. |
| Crystallized intelligence | Accumulated knowledge and vocabulary gained through experience. |
| Crystallized intelligence trend | Remains stable or improves into the 60s-70s. |
| Seattle Longitudinal Study | Study showing cognitive decline is not universal or the same for everyone. |
| K. Warner Schaie | Researcher who led the Seattle Longitudinal Study. |
| Cognitive reserve | Brain's ability to resist cognitive decline through education and mental activity. |
| Exercise and cognition | Regular physical activity helps protect against cognitive decline. |
| Elisabeth Kübler-Ross | Proposed the five stages of grief. |
| Kübler-Ross Model | Five stages experienced by many people facing death or major loss. |
| Denial | Initial refusal to accept a painful reality. |
| Anger | Frustration or resentment after recognizing a loss. |
| Bargaining | Attempting to negotiate for more time or a different outcome. |
| Depression (grief) | Deep sadness after accepting the reality of loss. |
| Acceptance | Coming to terms with loss or death. |
| Five stages of grief | Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance. |
| Grief stages limitation | People do not necessarily experience the stages in order. |
| Grief stage variability | Stages may be skipped, repeated, or experienced simultaneously. |
| Evidence limitation of Kübler-Ross model | Based primarily on interviews rather than strong empirical research. |
| Dual-process model of bereavement | Grief involves alternating between focusing on the loss and restoring normal life. |
| Stroebe and Schut | Researchers who proposed the dual-process model of bereavement. |
| Loss-oriented coping | Focusing on emotions and thoughts related to the loss. |
| Restoration-oriented coping | Adjusting to daily life and new responsibilities after loss. |
| Successful aging | Maintaining health, engagement, and well-being during older adulthood. |
| Disengagement theory | Successful aging occurs through mutual withdrawal of older adults and society. |
| Cumming and Henry | Researchers who proposed disengagement theory. |
| Disengagement theory criticism | Largely unsupported and considered outdated. |
| Activity theory | Remaining socially and physically active promotes life satisfaction. |
| Socioemotional selectivity theory | Older adults prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships as time feels limited. |
| Laura Carstensen | Psychologist who developed socioemotional selectivity theory. |
| Selective optimization with compensation | Successful aging by selecting goals, maximizing strengths, and compensating for losses. |
| Paul Baltes | Psychologist who proposed selective optimization with compensation. |
| Selection (Baltes) | Choosing fewer but more important goals. |
| Optimization (Baltes) | Investing resources to maximize performance in selected goals. |
| Compensation (Baltes) | Using alternative strategies to overcome age-related declines. |
| Three stages of prenatal development | Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal stages. |
| Prenatal stage order | Germinal → Embryonic → Fetal. |
| Most vulnerable prenatal stage | Embryonic stage because major organs are forming. |
| Organogenesis timing | Occurs during the embryonic stage. |
| Heart begins beating | During the embryonic stage. |
| Brain and spinal cord precursor | Neural tube. |
| Age of viability | Approximately 22-26 weeks of gestation. |
| Myelination begins (prenatal) | During the third trimester. |
| Development pattern | Follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles. |
| Brain weight at birth | About 25% of adult brain weight. |
| Brain weight at age 2 | About 75% of adult brain weight. |
| Synaptic pruning principle | "Use it or lose it." |
| Experience-expectant examples | Visual stimulation and language exposure. |
| Experience-dependent examples | Learning unique skills from individual experiences. |
| Gross motor skills | Large muscle movements such as crawling and walking. |
| Fine motor skills | Small muscle movements such as grasping and writing. |
| Attachment sensitive period | Approximately 6-24 months. |
| Primary function of attachment | Promotes infant survival and emotional security. |
| Secure base function | Allows exploration while providing safety. |
| Internal working models | Guide expectations about future relationships. |
| Most common attachment style | Secure attachment. |
| Least common attachment style | Disorganized attachment is about 10%. |
| Attachment style most associated with psychopathology | Disorganized attachment. |
| Easy temperament characteristics | Regular routines, adaptable, positive mood. |
| Difficult temperament characteristics | Irregular routines, intense reactions, negative mood. |
| Slow-to-warm-up characteristics | Initially cautious but gradually adapts. |
| Goodness of fit principle | Development improves when parenting matches temperament. |
| Contact comfort finding | Comfort is more important than feeding for attachment. |
| Preferred surrogate mother | Soft cloth mother. |
| Isolation outcome (Harlow) | Severe lifelong social deficits. |
| Puberty control system | Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. |
| Puberty hormone sequence | GnRH → LH and FSH → Sex hormones. |
| Adrenarche timing | Approximately ages 6-8. |
| Gonadarche timing | Approximately ages 9-14. |
| Average age of menarche | About 12.5 years. |
| Secular trend in puberty | Puberty begins earlier than in previous generations. |
| Negative effect of early maturation in girls | Greater risk of depression, substance use, and early sexual activity. |
| Marcia's identity dimensions | Exploration and commitment. |
| Identity achievement | Exploration completed with commitment. |
| Moratorium | Exploration without commitment. |
| Foreclosure | Commitment without exploration. |
| Identity diffusion | Neither exploration nor commitment. |
| Imaginary audience effect | Increased self-consciousness. |
| Personal fable effect | Belief in uniqueness and invulnerability leading to risk-taking. |
| Emerging adulthood age | Approximately 18-25 years. |
| Five features of emerging adulthood | Identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling in-between, possibilities. |
| Fluid intelligence | Novel reasoning and processing speed. |
| Crystallized intelligence | Knowledge and vocabulary from experience. |
| Fluid vs crystallized intelligence | Fluid declines with age while crystallized remains stable or improves. |
| Biological marker of aging | Telomere shortening. |
| Presbyopia | Age-related farsightedness. |
| Presbycusis | Age-related high-frequency hearing loss. |
| Menopause | End of menstruation caused by declining ovarian hormones. |
| Five stages of grief | Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance. |
| Kübler-Ross limitation | Grief stages are not fixed, universal, or sequential. |
| Dual-process model | Alternates between coping with loss and rebuilding daily life. |
| Disengagement theory | Older adults naturally withdraw from society. |
| Activity theory | Remaining active leads to greater life satisfaction. |
| Socioemotional selectivity theory | Older adults prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships. |
| Selective optimization with compensation | Select important goals, maximize strengths, and compensate for losses. |
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