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cognition
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cognition | All mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and understanding. |
| Divergent thinking | Generating multiple possible solutions to a problem. |
| Guilford (1967) | Researcher who distinguished convergent and divergent thinking. |
| Fluency | Number of ideas produced. |
| Flexibility | Variety of categories of ideas produced. |
| Originality | Uniqueness of ideas produced. |
| Elaboration | Amount of detail added to ideas. |
| Alternate uses task | A creativity test measuring divergent thinking by asking for different uses of an object. |
| Critical thinking | Analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning skillfully. |
| Creativity | Producing ideas that are both novel and useful. |
| Bloom’s taxonomy | Levels of cognitive thinking from basic knowledge to higher-order analysis, evaluation, and creation. |
| Wallas’s four-stage model of creativity (1926) | Preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification. |
| Preparation | Immersion in the problem and gathering information. |
| Incubation | Unconscious processing while attention is elsewhere. |
| Illumination | Sudden “Aha!” insight. |
| Verification | Testing and refining an idea. |
| Formal operational thinking | Piaget’s stage beginning around age 12 involving abstract reasoning. |
| Concept | Mental representation of groups of things. |
| Classic concept definition | A category defined by necessary and sufficient features. |
| Prototype theory (Rosch) | Categories organized around a typical example. |
| Typicality effect | Prototype members are categorized faster. |
| Exemplar theory | Categories formed from stored memories of specific examples. |
| Categorization | Grouping objects or ideas based on similarities. |
| Superordinate category | Broad category level (animal). |
| Basic category | Most efficient and commonly used category level (dog). |
| Subordinate category | Specific category level (golden retriever). |
| Heuristics | Mental shortcuts that simplify decisions. |
| Tversky and Kahneman (1974) | Researchers who studied heuristics and cognitive biases. |
| Algorithm | Step-by-step method guaranteeing a solution. |
| Problem solving | Finding methods to reach a goal or solution. |
| Means-end analysis | Reducing difference between current state and goal state using operators. |
| Newell and Simon (1972) | Developed means-end analysis and General Problem Solver. |
| Subgoal | Breaking a problem into smaller steps. |
| Working backwards | Starting from the goal and moving toward the current state. |
| Analogical reasoning | Using a solution from a known problem to solve a new problem. |
| Mental set (Einstellung effect) | Using previous solutions even when better solutions exist. |
| Luchins water jug problems | Study showing mental set can interfere with problem solving. |
| Functional fixedness | Inability to see new uses for objects beyond typical functions. |
| Duncker candle problem | Study demonstrating functional fixedness. |
| Confirmation bias | Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring conflicting evidence. |
| Wason 2-4-6 task | Study showing people test hypotheses that confirm their initial beliefs. |
| Anchoring bias | Overreliance on the first piece of information received. |
| Availability heuristic | Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. |
| Representativeness heuristic | Judging probability based on similarity to a prototype. |
| Metacognition | Awareness and control of one’s own thinking processes. |
| John Flavell | Researcher associated with metacognition. |
| Metacognitive knowledge | Knowledge about cognition and personal learning abilities. |
| Metacognitive regulation | Monitoring and controlling cognitive processes. |
| Person variable | Knowing your own strengths and weaknesses. |
| Task variable | Understanding difficulty of different tasks. |
| Strategy variable | Knowing which strategies work best. |
| Metacognitive regulation skills | Planning, monitoring, and evaluation. |
| Judgment of Learning (JOL) | Estimate of how well material has been learned. |
| Feeling of knowing | Feeling that information can be recalled even when it cannot currently be retrieved. |
| Tip of the tongue state | Temporary inability to retrieve known information. |
| Dunning-Kruger effect | Less skilled people overestimate ability while more skilled people underestimate relative ability. |
| Calibration | Match between confidence and actual performance. |
| Overconfidence bias | Overestimating knowledge, accuracy, or ability. |
| Decision making | Choosing between alternatives using reasoning, judgment, and evaluation. |
| Rational model of decision making | Model assuming people choose the option that maximizes expected value. |
| Expected Utility Theory (von Neumann & Morgenstern, 1944) | Theory that decisions are based on probability and utility of outcomes. |
| Expected utility formula | EU = Σ [p(outcome) × U(outcome)] |
| Completeness | Assumption that people can rank all alternatives by preference. |
| Transitivity | Assumption that if A is preferred to B and B to C, then A is preferred to C. |
| Independence | Assumption that preferences between options are unaffected by unrelated alternatives. |
| Invariance | Assumption that preferences should not change based on how choices are described. |
| Dual process model (Daniel Kahneman) | Model describing two systems of thinking: System 1 and System 2. |
| System 1 | Fast, automatic, intuitive thinking that relies on heuristics and can create biases. |
| System 2 | Slow, deliberate thinking requiring attention and effort. |
| Bounded rationality (Herbert Simon) | Idea that decision-making is limited by cognitive capacity, information, and time. |
| Satisficing | Choosing the first option that meets a minimum acceptable standard. |
| Maximising | Searching for the absolute best option among all choices. |
| Ecological rationality (Gigerenzer) | Idea that heuristics can be adaptive and useful depending on the environment. |
| Fast and frugal heuristics | Simple decision rules that can produce effective decisions quickly. |
| Availability heuristic | Estimating probability based on how easily examples come to mind. |
| Schwarz availability experiment | Showed easier-to-recall examples influence judgments. |
| Representativeness heuristic | Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype. |
| Base-rate neglect | Ignoring general statistical information when judging probability. |
| Conjunction fallacy | Believing a combination of events is more likely than a single event. |
| Linda problem | Tversky and Kahneman study demonstrating conjunction fallacy. |
| Gambler’s fallacy | Believing previous random events affect future independent events. |
| Anchoring and adjustment | Making estimates based on an initial value and adjusting from it. |
| Recognition heuristic | Choosing a recognized option because it seems more likely or better. |
| Goldstein and Gigerenzer (2002) | Researchers associated with recognition heuristic and ecological rationality. |
| Cognitive biases | Systematic errors in thinking and decision-making. |
| Sunk cost bias | Continuing an action because resources have already been invested. |
| Arkes and Thaler | Researchers associated with sunk cost effects. |
| Prospect theory (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979) | Theory explaining decision-making under risk using gains and losses. |
| Reference dependence | Judging outcomes relative to a reference point. |
| Loss aversion | Losses feel stronger than equivalent gains. |
| Diminishing sensitivity | Changes matter less as amounts become larger. |
| Probability weighting | People overweight small probabilities and underweight large probabilities. |
| Hindsight bias | Believing after an outcome occurs that it was predictable. |
| Fischhoff (1975) | Researcher associated with hindsight bias. |
| Framing effect | Choices change depending on how information is presented. |
| Asian Disease Problem | Tversky and Kahneman study showing framing effects. |
| Language | A communication system involving symbols, rules, and meaning. |
| Phoneme | Smallest unit of sound that changes meaning. |
| Morpheme | Smallest unit of meaning in language. |
| Syntax | Rules for combining words into sentences. |
| Semantics | Meaning of words and sentences. |
| Pragmatics | How context affects language use and interpretation. |
| Phonology | Study of sounds in language. |
| Perceptual narrowing | Infants become specialized in detecting sounds from their native language. |
| Free morpheme | Morpheme that can stand alone as a word. |
| Bound morpheme | Morpheme attached to another word, such as prefixes or suffixes. |
| Language acquisition | Process of learning language. |
| Nativist approach (Chomsky) | Theory that humans are born with an ability to acquire language. |
| Language Acquisition Device (LAD) | Chomsky’s idea of an inborn mechanism for learning language. |
| Universal grammar | Shared underlying principles of human languages. |
| Poverty of stimulus | Argument that children learn language beyond what they hear. |
| Critical period hypothesis (Lenneberg) | Idea that language learning is easiest before puberty. |
| Creolization | Process where children develop a full language from a simplified pidgin. |
| Behaviorist approach (Skinner) | Theory that language is learned through reinforcement, shaping, and imitation. |
| Operant conditioning | Learning through consequences such as rewards and punishments. |
| Interactionist approach (Bruner/Vygotsky) | Theory that language develops through social interaction. |
| Zone of proximal development (Vygotsky) | Skills a child can learn with guidance. |
| Scaffolding | Support provided to help children learn new skills. |
| Child-directed speech | Modified speech adults use with children to support language learning. |
| Language acquisition support system (Bruner) | Social support system that helps children learn language. |
| Genie case study | Evidence supporting the importance of the critical period for language. |
| Broca’s area | Brain region involved in speech production; damage causes nonfluent speech. |
| Wernicke’s area | Brain region involved in language comprehension; damage causes fluent but meaningless speech. |
| Arcuate fasciculus | Brain pathway connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. |
| Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf) | Idea that language influences thought and perception. |
| Strong linguistic relativity | Idea that language determines thought; largely rejected. |
| Weak linguistic relativity | Idea that language influences patterns of thought. |
| Bilingualism | Knowing two languages; associated with cognitive flexibility and executive control. |
| Thinking for speaking | Language influences how people organize thoughts when speaking. |
| Memory | The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. |
| Three stages of memory | Encoding, storage, and retrieval. |
| Encoding | The process of putting information into memory. |
| Storage | The process of maintaining information over time. |
| Retrieval | The process of accessing stored information. |
| Levels of processing theory (Craik & Lockhart) | Memory depends on how deeply information is processed. |
| Shallow processing | Processing based on physical appearance. |
| Intermediate processing | Processing based on sound. |
| Deep processing | Processing based on meaning; creates stronger memories. |
| Rehearsal | Repeating information to maintain memory. |
| Maintenance rehearsal | Simple repetition that creates weak long-term memory. |
| Elaborative rehearsal | Connecting new information to existing knowledge; improves long-term memory. |
| Self-reference effect | Information related to yourself is remembered better. |
| Method of loci | Memory strategy using visualizing information in familiar locations. |
| Chunking | Combining information into meaningful groups to increase memory capacity. |
| Generation effect | Information created by yourself is remembered better. |
| Encoding specificity principle (Tulving & Thomson) | Retrieval is best when cues match the conditions during encoding. |
| Context-dependent memory | Memory improves when the environment at retrieval matches learning. |
| State-dependent memory | Memory improves when internal state matches learning. |
| Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968) | Memory model including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. |
| Sensory memory | Very brief storage of sensory information. |
| Iconic memory | Visual sensory memory lasting milliseconds. |
| Echoic memory | Auditory sensory memory lasting several seconds. |
| Sperling partial report experiment | Demonstrated large capacity of iconic memory. |
| Short-term memory (STM) | Temporary memory storage with limited capacity. |
| Miller’s 7±2 | Classic estimate of STM capacity. |
| Cowan’s 4±1 | Modern estimate of STM capacity. |
| STM duration | Approximately 15–30 seconds without rehearsal. |
| Peterson and Peterson experiment | Showed STM rapidly decays without rehearsal. |
| Long-term memory (LTM) | Long-lasting memory with unlimited capacity. |
| Explicit memory | Conscious memory for facts and events. |
| Episodic memory | Memory for personal experiences and events. |
| Semantic memory | Memory for facts and knowledge. |
| Implicit memory | Unconscious memory that influences behavior. |
| Procedural memory | Memory for skills and habits. |
| Priming | Previous exposure influences later responses. |
| Classical conditioning memory | Learning through associations between stimuli. |
| Memory consolidation | Process of stabilizing memories after learning. |
| Synaptic consolidation | Short-term strengthening of memories through changes at synapses. |
| Long-term potentiation (LTP) | Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation. |
| Systems consolidation | Process where memories become less dependent on the hippocampus over time. |
| Sleep consolidation | Strengthening of memories during sleep. |
| Slow-wave sleep | Important for declarative memory consolidation. |
| REM sleep | Important for procedural and emotional memory. |
| Hippocampus | Brain structure important for forming new explicit memories. |
| Patient H.M. | Patient whose hippocampus removal caused inability to form new long-term memories. |
| Recall | Retrieving information without many cues. |
| Recognition | Identifying previously learned information from choices. |
| Relearning | Learning previously learned information faster than before. |
| Ebbinghaus savings method | Measure showing faster relearning of previously learned material. |
| Serial position effect | Memory advantage for beginning and end of lists. |
| Primacy effect | Better memory for items at the beginning of a list. |
| Recency effect | Better memory for items at the end of a list. |
| Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (Brown & McNeill) | Temporary inability to retrieve known information. |
| Prospective memory | Remembering to perform future actions. |
| Retrospective memory | Remembering past information. |
| Flashbulb memory (Brown & Kulik) | Vivid memories of emotional events that may still be inaccurate. |
| Baddeley working memory model | Model explaining short-term memory as a multi-component system. |
| Central executive | Controls attention and coordinates working memory. |
| Phonological loop | Stores and processes verbal information. |
| Visuospatial sketchpad | Stores and processes visual and spatial information. |
| Episodic buffer | Combines information from working memory and long-term memory. |
| Schema theory (Bartlett) | Existing knowledge structures influence memory. |
| War of the Ghosts study | Bartlett study showing cultural schemas distort memories. |
| Misinformation effect (Loftus) | Memory can be changed by misleading post-event information. |
| Loftus car crash study | Showed wording of questions changes eyewitness memory. |
| False memory | Remembering events that did not occur. |
| Lost in the mall study | Showed false childhood memories can be created. |
| DRM paradigm | Study showing people falsely remember related words not presented. |
| Source monitoring error | Confusing where or how a memory was acquired. |
| Weapon focus effect | Attention to a weapon reduces memory for other details. |
| Cross-race effect | People are generally less accurate recognizing faces from other racial groups. |
| Theories of forgetting | Explanations for why memories are lost. |
| Ebbinghaus forgetting curve | Shows rapid forgetting after learning followed by slower decline. |
| Storage decay theory | Memories weaken over time. |
| Interference theory | Memories compete with each other. |
| Proactive interference | Old memories interfere with learning new information. |
| Retroactive interference | New memories interfere with old information. |
| Motivated forgetting | Avoiding or blocking unwanted memories. |
| Repression (Freud) | Unconscious blocking of distressing memories. |
| Suppression | Conscious attempt to forget information. |
| Think/No-Think paradigm (Anderson & Green) | Study showing people can reduce retrieval of unwanted memories. |
| Amnesia | Severe memory loss. |
| Retrograde amnesia | Loss of memories from before an injury. |
| Anterograde amnesia | Inability to form new memories after injury. |
| Ribot’s law | Recent memories are more vulnerable to loss. |
| Intelligence | The ability to learn, reason, solve problems, think abstractly, and adapt to the environment. |
| Wechsler definition of intelligence | The capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment. |
| Sternberg & Detterman (1986) | Defined intelligence as adaptation, learning ability, and abstract thinking. |
| Gottfredson (1997) | Defined intelligence as general mental ability involving reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and learning. |
| Spearman’s two-factor theory (1904) | Theory that intelligence consists of general intelligence (g) and specific abilities (s). |
| g factor | A general intelligence factor influencing performance across cognitive tasks. |
| s factors | Specific abilities required for particular tasks. |
| Positive manifold | Finding that performance on different mental tasks tends to be positively correlated. |
| Factor analysis | Statistical method identifying clusters of related abilities. |
| Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938) | Theory that intelligence consists of seven independent abilities. |
| Verbal comprehension | Ability to understand verbal information. |
| Word fluency | Ability to quickly produce words. |
| Number facility | Ability to perform arithmetic operations. |
| Spatial visualization | Ability to understand and manipulate spatial information. |
| Associative memory | Ability to remember paired information. |
| Perceptual speed | Ability to quickly identify similarities and differences. |
| Reasoning | Ability to discover rules and patterns. |
| Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory (1983) | Theory that intelligence consists of multiple independent abilities. |
| Linguistic intelligence | Ability involving language. |
| Logical-mathematical intelligence | Ability involving reasoning and problem-solving. |
| Spatial intelligence | Ability to recognize and manipulate patterns. |
| Musical intelligence | Ability involving music. |
| Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence | Ability to use the body skillfully. |
| Interpersonal intelligence | Ability to understand others. |
| Intrapersonal intelligence | Ability to understand oneself. |
| Naturalistic intelligence | Ability to recognize and classify nature. |
| Sternberg’s Triarchic theory (1985) | Theory that intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical abilities. |
| Analytical intelligence | Ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems. |
| Creative intelligence | Ability to generate new ideas and handle novel situations. |
| Practical intelligence | Ability to adapt to and navigate real-world situations. |
| Tacit knowledge | Practical knowledge gained from experience. |
| Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence (1963) | Theory separating intelligence into fluid and crystallized abilities. |
| Fluid intelligence (Gf) | Ability to solve novel problems and recognize patterns. |
| Crystallized intelligence (Gc) | Accumulated knowledge and skills from experience. |
| Emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer) | Ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions. |
| Goleman emotional intelligence model | Includes self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. |
| Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory | Modern intelligence model with general intelligence, broad abilities, and narrow abilities. |
| Stratum III (CHC) | General intelligence (g). |
| Stratum II (CHC) | Broad abilities such as fluid reasoning, crystallized knowledge, processing speed, and memory. |
| Stratum I (CHC) | Specific narrow abilities. |
| Binet and Simon (1905) | Created the first intelligence test. |
| Mental age | Age level of performance on an intelligence test. |
| Terman Stanford-Binet test | Adapted Binet’s test for the United States. |
| Ratio IQ | Mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. |
| Deviation IQ | IQ score compared with same-age peers; mean 100 and SD 15. |
| Wechsler intelligence scales | Modern intelligence tests using deviation IQ. |
| WAIS | Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for adults. |
| WISC | Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children. |
| WPPSI | Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. |
| Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) | Measures verbal knowledge and reasoning. |
| Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) | Measures visual and nonverbal reasoning. |
| Working Memory Index (WMI) | Measures short-term memory and attention. |
| Processing Speed Index (PSI) | Measures speed of cognitive processing. |
| Standardization | Using a representative sample to create comparison scores. |
| Reliability | Consistency of measurement. |
| Validity | Whether a test measures what it claims to measure. |
| Culture-fair tests | Tests designed to reduce cultural bias. |
| Differential item functioning (DIF) | When test items function differently across groups. |
| Raven’s Progressive Matrices | Culture-reduced test measuring fluid intelligence. |
| Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test | Test designed to measure fluid intelligence with reduced cultural influence. |
| Flynn effect | Generational increase in IQ scores over time. |
| Binet’s view of intelligence | Intelligence is flexible and can improve. |
| Giftedness | Usually defined as IQ above 130. |
| Intellectual disability | IQ below about 70 with deficits in adaptive functioning. |
| Adoption studies | Studies comparing biological and adoptive relatives to study genes and environment. |
| Texas Adoption Project | Found IQ becomes more related to biological parents over time. |
| Twin studies | Studies comparing identical and fraternal twins to estimate genetic influence. |
| Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart | Found identical twins raised apart have highly similar IQs. |
| Heritability | Proportion of variation in a trait within a population explained by genetic differences. |
| Heritability coefficient | Ranges from 0 to 1; describes genetic contribution to variation. |
| Wilson effect | Genetic influence on intelligence increases with age. |
| Gene-environment interaction | Genetic effects depend on environmental conditions. |
| Reaction range | Range of possible outcomes allowed by genetics depending on environment. |
| Gene-environment correlation | Genes influence the environments people experience. |
| Passive correlation | Parents provide both genes and environment. |
| Evocative correlation | Genetic traits influence how others respond. |
| Active correlation | People choose environments matching their traits. |
| Prenatal factors affecting IQ | Nutrition, stress, disease, alcohol, and toxins can affect development. |
| Cognitive stimulation | Environmental enrichment that improves cognitive development. |
| Abecedarian Project | Early childhood intervention study showing IQ improvements. |
| SES and IQ | Socioeconomic environment influences cognitive development. |
| Flynn effect researcher | James Flynn studied generational IQ increases. |
| Nature-nurture debate | Debate over genetic versus environmental influences on intelligence. |
| Francis Galton | Argued intelligence was largely inherited. |
| John B. Watson | Supported extreme environmental influence through behaviorism. |
| Arthur Jensen | Argued genetic factors contributed to IQ differences. |
| Richard Lewontin | Argued within-group heritability cannot explain between-group differences. |
| Stereotype threat (Claude Steele) | Performance can be affected by awareness of negative stereotypes. |
| Ratio IQ formula | MA/CA × 100. |
| IQ distribution | Mean = 100, standard deviation = 15. |
| 68-95-99.7 rule | Percentages of scores within standard deviations of the mean. |
| Sensation | Detection of physical energy by sensory receptors. |
| Perception | Organization and interpretation of sensory information. |
| Bottom-up processing | Processing that begins with sensory input and builds toward perception. |
| Top-down processing | Processing influenced by expectations, knowledge, and context. |
| Transduction | Conversion of physical energy into neural signals. |
| Doctrine of specific nerve energies (Johannes Müller) | The type of sensation depends on which neural pathway is activated. |
| Vision pathway | Light → cornea → pupil → lens → retina → optic nerve → brain. |
| Retina | Light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors. |
| Photoreceptors | Cells in the retina that detect light. |
| Rods | Photoreceptors for dim light and peripheral vision; no color vision. |
| Cones | Photoreceptors for color vision and detailed vision. |
| Fovea | Center of retina with highest concentration of cones. |
| Optic nerve | Carries visual information from the retina to the brain. |
| Optic chiasm | Point where some optic nerve fibers cross. |
| LGN | Thalamic relay station for visual information. |
| Primary visual cortex (V1) | Brain area in occipital lobe where visual processing begins. |
| Blind spot | Area where optic nerve leaves retina; no photoreceptors. |
| Dark adaptation | Adjustment of vision in low light. |
| Trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz) | Color vision based on three cone types. |
| Opponent-process theory (Hering) | Color vision uses opposing color channels. |
| Afterimage | Visual experience caused by opponent-process effects after staring at a color. |
| Feature detection (Hubel & Wiesel) | Visual neurons respond to specific features such as edges and lines. |
| Simple cells | Visual neurons responding to edges at specific orientations. |
| Complex cells | Visual neurons responding to moving edges. |
| Fusiform face area | Brain area specialized for recognizing faces. |
| Two visual streams (Ungerleider & Mishkin) | Ventral and dorsal pathways for visual processing. |
| Ventral stream | “What” pathway; object recognition through temporal lobe. |
| Dorsal stream | “Where/how” pathway; spatial information through parietal lobe. |
| Hearing pathway | Sound waves → ear structures → cochlea → auditory nerve → brain. |
| Cochlea | Inner ear structure containing receptors for hearing. |
| Hair cells | Auditory receptors that convert vibrations into neural signals. |
| Place theory | Pitch depends on location of vibration on basilar membrane. |
| Frequency theory | Pitch depends on firing rate matching sound frequency. |
| Volley theory | Groups of neurons work together to represent higher frequencies. |
| Tonotopic organization | Different frequencies are represented in different locations of auditory pathways. |
| Taste | Sense involving taste buds detecting chemicals. |
| Five basic tastes | Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami. |
| Smell (olfaction) | Sense using olfactory receptors in the nose. |
| Olfactory bulb | Brain structure receiving smell information. |
| Proust effect | Strong connection between smell, memory, and emotion. |
| Touch receptors | Skin receptors detecting different types of pressure and touch. |
| Meissner corpuscles | Detect light touch. |
| Pacinian corpuscles | Detect deep pressure. |
| Merkel discs | Detect sustained pressure. |
| Ruffini endings | Detect skin stretch. |
| Two-point threshold | Ability to distinguish two nearby touches. |
| Pain (nociception) | Detection of potentially harmful stimuli. |
| Gate control theory of pain (Melzack & Wall) | Pain perception is influenced by spinal gates and brain signals. |
| A-delta and C fibers | Small pain fibers that open the pain gate. |
| A-beta fibers | Large touch fibers that reduce pain signals. |
| Placebo analgesia | Pain reduction caused by expectation of relief. |
| Sensory adaptation | Reduced sensitivity after constant stimulation. |
| Absolute threshold | Minimum stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time. |
| Difference threshold (JND) | Minimum difference between stimuli detected 50% of the time. |
| Weber’s law | JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus. |
| Signal detection theory (Green & Swets) | Detection depends on sensitivity and response bias. |
| Sensitivity | Ability to distinguish signal from noise. |
| Response bias | Willingness to report detecting a signal. |
| Hit | Correctly detecting a present signal. |
| Miss | Failing to detect a present signal. |
| False alarm | Reporting a signal when none exists. |
| Correct rejection | Correctly reporting no signal. |
| Gestalt psychology | Idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. |
| Figure-ground principle | Separating an object from its background. |
| Proximity principle | Objects close together are grouped together. |
| Similarity principle | Similar objects are grouped together. |
| Continuity principle | People prefer smooth continuous patterns. |
| Closure principle | The brain fills in missing information. |
| Common fate principle | Objects moving together are perceived as grouped. |
| Law of Prägnanz | The brain prefers simple, organized interpretations. |
| Depth perception | Ability to perceive distance and three-dimensional space. |
| Monocular cues | Depth cues using one eye. |
| Relative size | Smaller retinal images are perceived as farther away. |
| Interposition | Objects blocking others appear closer. |
| Linear perspective | Parallel lines appear to converge with distance. |
| Texture gradient | Textures become smaller and denser with distance. |
| Aerial perspective | Distant objects appear hazier. |
| Motion parallax | Nearby objects appear to move faster than distant objects. |
| Accommodation | Lens changes shape to focus on objects. |
| Binocular cues | Depth cues requiring both eyes. |
| Retinal disparity | Difference between images from each eye used for depth. |
| Convergence | Eye movement inward when viewing nearby objects. |
| Visual cliff experiment (Gibson & Walk) | Study showing infants and animals show depth perception. |
| Perceptual constancy | Ability to perceive objects as stable despite changing sensory input. |
| Size constancy | Perceiving objects as the same size despite distance changes. |
| Shape constancy | Perceiving objects as the same shape from different angles. |
| Color constancy | Perceiving colors as stable despite lighting changes. |
| Müller-Lyer illusion | Illusion caused by misapplied size constancy cues. |
| Ponzo illusion | Illusion using linear perspective to alter perceived size. |
| Ames room illusion | Illusion caused by assumptions about room shape. |
| Moon illusion | Moon appears larger near the horizon due to perceived distance. |
| Ecological approach (Gibson) | Perception relies directly on environmental information. |
| Constructivist approach (Gregory) | Perception involves interpreting sensory information using knowledge. |
| Word superiority effect | Words are recognized better than individual letters. |
| Change blindness | Failure to notice changes in a scene. |
| Inattentional blindness | Failure to notice unexpected objects. |
| Invisible gorilla experiment | Study showing inattentional blindness. |
| Perceptual set | Expectation influences perception. |
| Bugelski and Alampay rat-man figure | Study showing expectations influence interpretation. |
| Gilchrist and Nesberg | Study showing hunger affects perception. |
| Hudson | Research showing culture affects depth perception. |
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