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Biology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Inductive Reasoning | Reasoning based on observations being used to draw conclusions. |
| Deductive Reasoning | Reasoning that uses a question or problem and a hypothesis or possible answer to test for solutions. |
| Sir Francis Bacon | An Englishman that used the first recorded instance of the scientific method. |
| Basic Science | The expansion of scientific knowledge without a direct purpose |
| Applied science | Science being used to solve real world problems. |
| Characteristics of life | Order, sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, energy processing, and evolution |
| Homeostasis | The regulation of body conditions |
| Atom | Smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. Consists of nucleus and electrons. |
| Molecules | Chemical structures made by two or more atoms being held together by one or more chemical bonds. |
| Macromolecules | Large molecules that are typically formed through polymerization. |
| Polymer | A large molecules that is made by combining smaller molecules called monomers. |
| Organelles | Aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes. Small structures that exist within cells. |
| Cell | The smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. |
| Prokaryotes | Single celled or colonial organisms that do not have a membrane bound nucleus. |
| Eukaryotes | Contain cells with membrane bound organelles and a membrane bound nucleus. |
| Tissues | Groups of similar cells carrying out similar or related functions. |
| Organs | Collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. |
| Organ Systems | A higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. |
| Organisms | Individual living entities. |
| Microorganisms | A type of organism usually consisting of single celled prokaryotes and eukaryotes. |
| Population | All the individuals of a species living within a specific area. |
| Community | The sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. |
| Ecosystem | All the living things in an area together with the abiotic no living things. |
| Biosphere | The collection of all ecosystems on earth |
| Evolution | The process of gradual change during which a new species arises from older species. |
| Phylogenetic tree | A diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both. Nodes represent ancestors and branch lengths show the amount of time since split from ancestors. |
| Carl Woese | Creator of the phylogenetic tree |
| Elements | Unique forms of matter with specific chemical and physical properties that can not be broken down into smaller substances by ordinary reactions. |
| Beta decay | The emission of electrons or positrons. |
| Functional groups | Groups of atoms that give specific properties to hydrocarbon chains or rings that define their overall chemical characteristics and function. |
| Isomers | Molecules with the same molecular formula but different molecular structures resulting in different properties or functions. |
| Organic molecules | Any carbon containing liquid solid or gas |
| Hydrocarbons | Organic molecules consisting of entirely carbon and hydrogen. |
| Aliphatic hydrocarbons | Linear chain or carbon atoms |
| Aromatic hydrocarbons | Closed rings of carbon atoms |
| Structural isomers | Isomers that differ in the placement of their covalent bonds. |
| Cis configuration | Hydrogens on the same side of a double bond (hydrogens same plane) |
| Trans configuration | Hydrogens on opposite sides of the double bond (hydrogens different planes) |
| Tryglicerides | Fats and oils |
| Unsaturated fats | Fats with at least one double bonds between carbons. |
| Saturated fats | No carbon double bonds. Usually solid at room temperature. Usually of animal origin. |
| Enantiomers | Molecules that share the same chemical formula and structure but different molecular structures in the 3d placement. Usually come in L and D forms. |
| Functional groups | Groups of atoms that occur within molecules aged confer specific chemical properties to those molecules. They are found along the carbon backbone of macromolecules. |
| Carbon backbone | Formed by chains and/or rings of carbon atoms with the occasional substitution of an element such as nitrogen or oxygen. |
| Substituted hydrocarbons | Molecules with other elements in their carbon backbone |
| 4 types of macromolecules | Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids |
| Dehydration synthesis | When monomers combine to turn into polymers and release water. Exactly meaning - “to put together while losing water” |
| Hydrolysis | To break down polymers into monomers using water. |
| Amylase, lactase, sucrose, maltase | Break down carbohydrates |
| Pepsin and peptidase, hydrochloride acid | Break down proteins |
| Lipases | Break down lipids |
| Stoichiometric formula for carbohydrates | (CH2O)n where n is the number of carbons |
| Monosaccharides | Simple sugars (type of carbohydrate) Ex: glucose, galactose, fructose |
| Aldose | A type of monosaccharide with an aldehyde group (R-CHO) |
| Ketose | A type of monosaccharide with a ketone group |
| Triose | A monosaccharide with three carbons |
| Pentose | A monosaccharide with five carbons |
| Hexose | A monosaccharide with six carbons |
| Glucose | C6H12O6. A source of energy used during cellular respiration to make ATP. Has the same chemical formula as galactose and fructose. |
| Alpha position | When a hydroxyl group is below the plane of carbons in a sugar ring molecule |
| Beta position | When a hydroxyl group is above the plane of carbons in a sugar ring molecule |
| Disaccharide | Formed when two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis Ex: lactose, maltose, sucrose |
| Glycosidic bond | A covalent bond formed between a carbohydrate molecule and another molecule. |
| Polysaccharide | A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Ex: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin |
| Starch | The stored form of sugar in plants, made up of. Mixture of amylose and amylopectin |
| Glycogen | The stored form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, made up of monomers of glucose, stored in muscle and liver cells. |
| Cellulose | Most abundant natural polymer, makes up the cell wall of plants, made up of glucose monomers that are linked by beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds, broken down by cellulose |
| Chitin | A polysaccharide containing nitrogen |
| Fat molecule | Made up of glycerol and fatty acids |
| Glycerol | Organic compound with three carbons, five hydrogens, three hydroxyl(oh) groups. Also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides. |
| Ester bond | Bond between an alcohol and an acid |
| Saturated fatty acids | Fatty acid chains where there are only single bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. |
| Unsaturated fatty acids | Fatty acid chains where there is a double bond between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain. Usually oils |
| Monounsaturated fats | Unsaturated fats where there is only one double bond in the hydrocarbon chain |
| Polyunsaturated fats | Unsaturated fats where there are multiple double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. |
| Omega fatty acids | Polyunsaturated fatty acids essential for the body. |
| Waxes | Long fatty acid chains esterified to long alcohols (type of lipid) |
| Phospholipids | Major parts of plasma membrane, fatty acids attached to glycerol or sphingosine backbone. |
| Phospholipid bilayer | Made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails (made of fatty acids), main component of cellular membranes. |
| Steroids | Lipids with a fused ring structure, four linked carbon rings and possible short tails, hydrophobic and insoluble in water. |
| Cholesterol | The most common steroid, necessary for proper functioning of the body, found in phospholipid bilayer(plasma membrane) |
| Proteins | Polymers of amino acids arranged in a linear sequence. Created from the 20 most common amino acids. |
| Enzymes | Catalysts in biochemical reactions, usually complex or conjugated proteins. |
| Catabolic enzymes | Enzymes that break down substrates |
| Substrate | A reactant that binds to a specific enzyme |
| Anabolic enzymes | Enzymes that build more complex structures from their substrates |
| Catalytic enzymes | Enzymes that affect the rate of reaction |
| Hormones | Chemical signaling molecules, usually small proteins or steroids, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. |
| Insulin | A protein hormone that works to regulate the blood glucose level |
| Denaturation | Loss of function of a protein. |
| Amino acids | monomers that make up proteins. consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another atom or group of atoms bonded to the central atom known as the R group |
| Peptide bonds | Covalent bonds that attach amino acids |
| Peptides | Products formed from peptide bonds |
| Polypeptide | A chain of multiple peptides |
| Primary protein structure | The unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain |
| Secondary protein structure | The local folding of the polypeptide in some regions Ex; alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheet |
| Tertiary protein structure | The unique three dimensional structure of the polypeptide |
| Quaternary protein structure | The interaction of multiple polypeptides |
| Chaperones | Protein helpers that associate with the target protein during protein folding |
| Nucleic acid | Macromolecules that contain the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of a cell. |
| DNA | The genetic material found in all living organisms that creates chromatin and controls cell activity. |
| Genome | The entire genetic content of a cell |
| RNA | A type of nucleic acid that is used in protein synthesis and communication. |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | A type of RNA used to communicate with the rest of the cell. |
| Nucleotide | Monomers that combine to make DNA or RNA. Made of a nitrogenous base, a pentose, and a phosphate group. |
| 4 nitrogenous bases | Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine |
| Purines | Nitrogenous bases that have two carbon-nitrogen rings, Ex: adenine, guanine |
| Pyrimidines | Nitrogenous bases with one carbon-nitrogen ring, Ex: thymine, cytosine, uracil |
| Deoxyribose | The pentose sugar in DNA with a hydrogen on the second carbon |
| Ribose | The pentose sugar in RNA with a hydroxyl group on the second carbon |
| Codon | A set of three mRNA bases that codes for a single amino acid |
| Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | A type of RNA that ensures the proper alignment of ribosomes and mRNA during protein synthesis. |
| Transfer RNA (tRNA) | A type of RNA that carries the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. |
| microRNA | A type of RNA that regulates gene expression by interfering with the expression of certain mRNA messages. |
| Transcription | The process where DNA dictates the structure of mRNA |
| Translation | The process where RNA dictates the structure of proteins |
| Stem cell | A cell that has not gone through the changes involved in specialization. |
| Electron microscopes | Microscopes that use a beam of electrons instead of light |
| Unified cell theory | All living things are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, all cells come from other cells |
| Plasma membrane | An outer covering that separates the cells interior from its surrounding environment, a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins |
| Cytoplasm | Jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular parts or found. The entire region of a cell between the plasma membrane and nuclear envelope. |
| DNA | The genetic material of the cell |
| Ribosomes | Organelles that synthesize proteins |
| Prokaryote | Simple unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles |
| Nucleoid | Where prokaryotic DNA is found |
| Microvilli | Finger like projections that are formed by the plasma membrane of absorption related cells |
| Nucleus | Typically the most prominent organelle in the cell. Houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis or ribosomes and proteins. |
| Nuclear envelope | Made up of two phospholipid bilayers. Outermost portion of the nucleus, punctuated with pores that control movement between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. |
| Nucleoplasm | Semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus where nucleolus and chromatin is found. |
| Chromosomes | Structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA |
| Chromatin | Unwound protein chromosome bunches |
| Nucleolus | The part of the nucleus that turns rRNA into ribosomes |
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