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Chapter 5 Psych
For Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| learning | A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. |
| behaviorism | A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of such mental activity as thinking, wishing, and hoping. |
| associative learning | Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events. |
| Conditioning | . Associative learning occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events. Conditioning is the process of learning these associations |
| classical conditioning | Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. |
| operant conditioning | organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward. As a result of this association, organisms learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and to decrease behaviors that are followed by punishment. |
| observational learning | Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another’s behavior. |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning. |
| unconditioned response (UR) | An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
| conditioned response (CR) | The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after a conditioned stimulus–unconditioned stimulus pairing. |
| acquisition | The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired |
| generalization (classical conditioning) | The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. |
| discrimination (classical conditioning) | The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. |
| extinction (classical conditioning) | The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent. |
| spontaneous recovery | The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. |
| counterconditioning | A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response. |
| aversive conditioning | A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus. |
| taste aversion | a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea |
| Drug Habituation | Over time, a person who has taken a psychoactive drug (for example as a treatment for, say, anxiety) might develop a tolerance for that drug and need a higher and higher dose of the substance to get the same effect. |
| habituation | Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations. |
| Between Classical and Operant Conditioning, which works better for voluntary and involuntary responses? | Classical conditioning explains how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses. Operant conditioning works better on voluntary responses. |
| operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning | A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence |
| Who developed the concept of operant conditioning? | American psychologist B. F. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. Skinner chose the term operant to describe the behavior of the organism. |
| How to remember Classical from Operant Conditioning | Remember that operant conditioning is about what comes AFTER a behavior. Classical conditioning is really about what comes BEFORE an unconditioned stimulus |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect (E. L. Thorndike) | Thorndike’s law stating that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and that behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. |
| shaping | Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior. |
| reinforcement | The process by which a stimulus or an event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again. |
| positive reinforcement | The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior |
| negative reinforcement | The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. |
| avoidance learning | An organism’s learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response. |
| learned helplessness | Through experience with unavoidable aversive stimuli, an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes |
| primary reinforcer | A reinforcer that is innately satisfying; one that does not take any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable. |
| secondary reinforcer | A reinforcer that acquires its positive value through an organism’s experience; a secondary reinforcer is a learned or conditioned reinforcer. |
| schedules of reinforcement | Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. |
| four main schedules of partial reinforcement: | fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval |
| fixed-ratio schedule | reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors. For example, a factory might require a line worker to produce 100 items in order to get paid a particular amount. |
| variable-ratio schedule | a system in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis. For example, a slot machine might pay off at an average of every 20th time, but the gambler does not know when this payoff will be. |
| fixed-interval schedule | reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. If you take a class that has four scheduled exams, you might procrastinate most of the semester and cram just before each test. |
| variable-interval schedule | a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. Pop quizzes occur on a variable-interval schedule. You have to keep studying throughout the course of a class because you never know when you might be quizzed. |
| punishment | A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur. |
| positive punishment | The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior |
| negative punishment | The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. |
| delay of gratification | Putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward in order to gain a larger, later reward. |
| applied behavior analysis or behavior modification | The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior. |
| autism spectrum disorder | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social communication and social interaction across a variety of settings as well as restrictive repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities. |
| four main processes that are crucial to observational learning: | attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement |
| E. C. Tolman came up with what idea? | purposiveness |
| purposiveness | the idea that much of behavior is goal-directed. |
| latent learning or implicit learning | Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior. |
| insight learning | A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution |
| instinctive drift | The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning. |
| preparedness | The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others. |
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JoshuaB5