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| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the functions of the digestive system? | Digestion, absorption of nutrients, elimination of waste products as feces or stool, and accessory/mechanical breakdown by teeth, tongue, cheeks, lips, and palate. |
| What is digestion? | Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. |
| What is absorption in the digestive system? | Taking in nutrients from digested food. |
| What is elimination in the digestive system? | Removal of waste products as feces or stool. |
| What structures help in accessory or mechanical breakdown of food? | Teeth, tongue, cheeks, lips, and palate. |
| What are the segments of the digestive or alimentary tract in order? | Mouth/oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. |
| What is the first segment of the alimentary tract? | Mouth or oral cavity. |
| What is the terminal segment of the alimentary canal? | Anus. |
| What are the digestive glands? | Salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. |
| What do salivary glands produce? | Saliva. |
| What does the liver secrete? | Bile. |
| Where is bile temporarily stored? | Gallbladder. |
| What does the pancreas secrete? | Pancreatic juice and hormones. |
| What are the apertures or regions of the pharynx? | Oropharynx, nasopharynx, laryngopharynx, and pharyngeal proper. |
| What is the oropharynx? | It opens into the mouth or oral cavity. |
| What is the high-yield keyword for oropharynx? | Food and water pathway. |
| What is the nasopharynx? | It opens into the nasal cavity and is located dorsal to the oral cavity. |
| What is the high-yield keyword for nasopharynx? | Air pathway. |
| What is the laryngopharynx? | It opens toward the larynx and esophagus. |
| What is the high-yield keyword for laryngopharynx? | Air and food junction. |
| What is the pharyngeal proper? | Area at the junction of the three apertures. |
| What is the high-yield keyword for pharyngeal proper? | Common passageway for food, water, and air. |
| What are the segments of the esophagus? | Cervical esophagus, thoracic esophagus, and abdominal esophagus. |
| What is the cervical esophagus? | The esophagus in the neck region. |
| What is the thoracic esophagus? | The esophagus in the thoracic cavity. |
| What is the abdominal esophagus? | Short segment of the esophagus after passing through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm. |
| Is there a lumbar esophagus? | No, there is no lumbar esophagus. |
| What are the layers of the esophagus from inner to outer? | Tunica mucosa, submucosa, tunica muscularis, and tunica adventitia. |
| What is the first layer of the esophagus from inner to outer? | Tunica mucosa. |
| What is the tunica mucosa of the esophagus? | Inner lining. |
| What is the second layer of the esophagus? | Submucosa. |
| What is the submucosa of the esophagus? | Connective tissue layer. |
| What is the third layer of the esophagus? | Tunica muscularis. |
| What is the function of tunica muscularis in the esophagus? | Muscle layer for movement or peristalsis. |
| What is the fourth or outer layer of the esophagus? | Tunica adventitia. |
| What is tunica adventitia? | Outer layer of the esophagus; thicker connective tissue than serosa. |
| What are the layers of the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine from inner to outer? | Tunica mucosa, submucosa, tunica muscularis, and tunica serosa. |
| What is the tunica mucosa of the stomach and intestines? | Inner lining; stomach mucosa contains gastric glands. |
| What is the submucosa of the stomach and intestines? | Supportive connective tissue. |
| What is the tunica muscularis of the stomach and intestines? | Muscle layer. |
| What is the tunica serosa? | Outer layer of stomach and intestines; thinner than adventitia. |
| What is the outer layer of the esophagus? | Tunica adventitia. |
| What is the outer layer of the stomach and intestines? | Tunica serosa. |
| What are the parts of the stomach? | Cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. |
| What are the stomach sphincters? | Cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter. |
| Where is the cardiac sphincter located? | Between the esophagus and cardia. |
| Where is the pyloric sphincter located? | Between the pylorus and duodenum. |
| What is the function of the cardiac and pyloric sphincters? | They prevent backflow of ingesta. |
| What cell secretes HCl? | Parietal cell. |
| What cell secretes pepsinogen? | Chief cell. |
| What is pepsinogen? | Inactive form of pepsin. |
| What are the surfaces of the stomach? | Parietal surface and visceral surface. |
| What is the parietal surface of the stomach? | Usually convex and faces the outside or body wall. |
| What is the visceral surface of the stomach? | Faces other internal organs. |
| What are the curvatures of the stomach? | Greater curvature and lesser curvature. |
| What is the term for ingesta inside the stomach? | Chyme. |
| What is the pH of chyme? | Strongly acidic because of hydrochloric acid. |
| What is the non-movable or fixed segment of the small intestine? | Duodenum. |
| What is the mesenteric or movable portion of the small intestine? | Jejunum and ileum. |
| What are the segments of the small intestine? | Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. |
| What is the duodenum? | First and most fixed segment of the small intestine. |
| What does the duodenum receive? | Bile from the bile duct and pancreatic juice from the pancreatic duct. |
| What is the jejunum? | Longest, most movable, and most absorptive segment of the small intestine. |
| What is the ileum? | Terminal segment of the small intestine. |
| What does the ileum contain? | Peyer’s patches or lymphoid nodules. |
| What is the function of Peyer’s patches? | Intestinal defense against microorganisms. |
| What are the segments of the large intestine? | Cecum, colon, rectum, and anus. |
| What is the cecum? | First segment of the large intestine and counterpart of the human appendix. |
| What is the function of the cecum in some animals? | It may serve as a site of fermentation. |
| What is the colon? | Longest segment of the large intestine. |
| What is the main function of the colon? | Water and electrolyte reabsorption. |
| What is the normal transit time discussed in the lecture for the colon? | About 12 hours. |
| What is the rectum? | Terminal or last segment of the large intestine; temporary storage site for feces before defecation. |
| What is the anus? | Terminal segment of the alimentary canal; passage for expelling feces. |
| What are the muscles of the anus? | Sphincter ani internus and sphincter ani externus. |
| What is sphincter ani internus? | Internal anal sphincter; smooth and involuntary muscle. |
| What is sphincter ani externus? | External anal sphincter; skeletal and voluntary muscle. |
| What are the salivary glands listed in the guide? | Parotid gland, mandibular/submaxillary gland, sublingual gland, zygomatic gland, and buccal glands. |
| What is the secretion type of the parotid gland? | Mostly serous secretion. |
| What is the secretion type of the mandibular or submaxillary gland? | Mixed secretion. |
| What is the secretion type of the sublingual gland? | Mixed, more mucous. |
| What are the parts of the sublingual gland? | Monostomatic/major and polystomatic/minor parts. |
| What is the zygomatic gland? | A mixed gland that is well-developed in dogs. |
| What are buccal glands? | Small glands in the cheeks. |
| What are the divisions of buccal glands? | Dorsal, intermediate, and ventral. |
| What are the types of salivary secretions? | Serous, mucous, and mixed. |
| What is serous salivary secretion? | Watery and enzyme-rich secretion. |
| What is mucous salivary secretion? | Thick and lubricating secretion. |
| What is mixed salivary secretion? | Both serous and mucous secretion. |
| What is the liver? | Largest gland of the body. |
| Where is the liver situated? | Obliquely against the visceral surface of the diaphragm. |
| What is the main secretion of the liver? | Bile. |
| Where is bile stored? | Temporarily in the gallbladder. |
| What are the functions of the liver? | Bile production for fat digestion, metabolism of nutrients, detoxification, storage of glycogen/vitamins/minerals, plasma protein production, and blood filtration/phagocytosis. |
| What is the simple main answer for lobes of the liver? | Left lobe, right lobe, quadrate/median lobe, and caudate lobe. |
| What is the detailed dog answer for lobes of the liver? | Left lateral, left medial, quadrate, right medial, right lateral, and caudate lobe. |
| What processes does the caudate lobe have? | Caudate and papillary processes. |
| What liver process was emphasized in the lecture? | Papillary process. |
| What are the surfaces of the liver? | Parietal/diaphragmatic surface and visceral surface. |
| What is the parietal or diaphragmatic surface of the liver? | Convex surface that faces the diaphragm or body wall. |
| What is the visceral surface of the liver? | Flat to concave surface that faces abdominal organs. |
| What are the borders or circumference of the liver? | Dorsal border, ventral border, and lateral borders. |
| What are the portions of the pancreas? | Exocrine portion and endocrine portion. |
| What cells make up the exocrine portion of the pancreas? | Pancreatic acinar cells. |
| What does the exocrine pancreas secrete? | Pancreatic juice. |
| What does pancreatic juice contain? | Amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, and chymotrypsinogen. |
| What does amylase digest? | Carbohydrates. |
| What does lipase digest? | Fats. |
| What do trypsin and chymotrypsin digest? | Proteins. |
| What structure makes up the endocrine portion of the pancreas? | Islets of Langerhans. |
| What does the endocrine pancreas secrete? | Glucagon and insulin. |
| What cells secrete glucagon? | Alpha cells. |
| What is the function of glucagon? | Increases blood glucose. |
| What cells secrete insulin? | Beta cells. |
| What is the function of insulin? | Decreases blood glucose. |
| What is the morphological classification of teeth? | Incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. |
| What is the functional classification of incisors? | Nibble, cut, and groom. |
| What is the functional classification of canines? | Puncture, grasp, and tear. |
| What is the functional classification of premolars? | Shear, cut, and crush. |
| What is the functional classification of molars? | Grind and crush. |
| What are carnassial or shearing teeth? | Cutting or shearing teeth of the dog. |
| What teeth form the carnassial pair in dogs? | Upper 4th premolar and lower 1st molar. |
| What teeth are present in deciduous teeth? | Incisors, canines, and premolars only. |
| Are molars present in deciduous teeth? | No, deciduous teeth have no molars. |
| What teeth are present in permanent teeth? | Incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. |
| What are the layers of teeth? | Enamel, dentin, cementum, and pulp cavity. |
| What are the regions of teeth? | Crown, neck, and root. |
| What tooth surfaces were mentioned in the lecture? | Occlusal, labial, and lingual. |
| What are the parts of the tongue? | Root, body, and apex. |
| What is the dorsum of the tongue? | Free dorsal surface of the tongue. |
| What does the mucosa of the dorsum of the tongue contain? | Lingual papillae. |
| What are the lingual papillae? | Filiform, fungiform, foliate, and vallate/circumvallate papillae. |
| What are filiform papillae? | Bristle-like papillae; mainly mechanical. |
| What are fungiform papillae? | Mushroom-shaped papillae associated with taste buds. |
| What are foliate papillae? | Leaf-like papillae associated with taste buds. |
| What are vallate or circumvallate papillae? | Large or prominent papillae near the caudal dorsum; associated with taste buds. |
| What lingual papillae were most prominent in dog per lecture? | Vallate and fungiform papillae. |
| What are the two parts of the palate? | Hard palate and soft palate. |
| What is the hard palate? | Rostral, bony part of the palate. |
| What does the hard palate separate? | Nasal cavity/nasopharynx above from oral cavity/oropharynx below. |
| What bones mainly form the hard palate? | Incisive, maxillary, and palatine bones. |
| What is the soft palate? | Caudal, membranous part of the palate. |
| What are the parts/features of the soft palate? | Base, free border, oral surface, and aboral surface. |
| What is the function of the soft palate? | Helps separate respiratory and digestive passages during swallowing. |
| What are the segments of the respiratory tract? | Nose/external nares, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles/alveolar ducts/alveoli, and lungs. |
| What is the function of the nose or external nares? | Entry of air. |
| What is the nasal cavity? | Cylindrical passage enclosed by facial bones. |
| What are the functions of the nasal cavity? | Warms, moistens, and filters air; houses the olfactory region. |
| What is the function of the pharynx in the respiratory system? | Common passageway for digestive and respiratory systems. |
| What is the larynx? | Cartilaginous valvular apparatus or voice box that connects pharynx and trachea. |
| What are the functions of the larynx? | Regulates air volume, prevents entry of foreign bodies/aspiration, and produces voice. |
| What is the trachea? | Windpipe; patent cartilaginous-membranous tube from larynx to bronchi. |
| What is the function of the trachea? | Conducts air. |
| What are bronchi? | Branches of the trachea that conduct air toward the lungs. |
| What are bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli? | Smaller passageways; alveoli are the site of gas exchange. |
| What are the lungs? | Principal organs of respiration. |
| What is the main function of the lungs? | Gas exchange between air and blood. |
| What is the dorsal boundary of the nasal cavity? | Nasal bone. |
| What is the lateral boundary of the nasal cavity? | Premaxilla/incisive bone and maxilla. |
| What is the ventral boundary of the nasal cavity? | Palatine bone or hard palate. |
| What is the rostral boundary of the nasal cavity? | Anterior nares or nostrils. |
| What is the caudal boundary of the nasal cavity? | Posterior nares or choanae. |
| What separates the left and right nasal cavities? | Nasal septum. |
| What is included in the bony basis of the nasal septum? | Vomer. |
| What are the paired laryngeal cartilages based on the lecture? | Arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform. |
| What is the book clarification about paired laryngeal cartilages in dogs? | In the dog, only arytenoid is truly paired; corniculate and cuneiform are processes associated with arytenoid. |
| What are the unpaired laryngeal cartilages based on the lecture? | Epiglottic, thyroid, and cricoid. |
| What cartilages does Miller list for the dog larynx? | Epiglottic, thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid, sesamoid, and interarytenoid cartilages. |
| What are the layers of the trachea from outer to inner? | Fascia propria/adventitia, cartilaginous rings, fibroelastic layer, trachealis muscle, and mucous membrane/tunica mucosa. |
| What is fascia propria or adventitia of the trachea? | Outer connective tissue covering. |
| What are the cartilaginous rings of the trachea made of? | Hyaline cartilage. |
| What is the shape of the tracheal cartilaginous rings in dogs? | U-shaped. |
| What is the function of the tracheal cartilaginous rings? | Keeps the trachea patent or open. |
| What is the fibroelastic layer of the trachea? | Elastic support layer. |
| What is the trachealis muscle? | Smooth muscle spanning the open dorsal part of the U-shaped rings. |
| What is the mucous membrane or tunica mucosa of the trachea lined by? | Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. |
| Is the tracheal mucosa keratinized or non-keratinized? | Non-keratinized. |
| Where does the trachea bifurcate? | At the carina. |
| What are the branches of the bronchi in order? | Primary/principal bronchi, secondary/lobar bronchi, tertiary/segmental bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts/alveolar sacs/alveoli. |
| What are primary or principal bronchi? | Right and left bronchi. |
| What are secondary bronchi? | Lobar bronchi. |
| What are tertiary bronchi? | Segmental bronchi. |
| What are the surfaces of the lungs? | Costal, mediastinal, interlobar, and diaphragmatic surfaces. |
| What is the costal surface of the lungs? | Surface that faces the ribs laterally. |
| What is the mediastinal surface of the lungs? | Surface that faces the mediastinum or heart medially. |
| What is the interlobar surface of the lungs? | Surface between adjacent lung lobes. |
| What is the diaphragmatic surface of the lungs? | Surface that faces the diaphragm caudally. |
| What are the borders of the lungs? | Dorsal border and ventral border. |
| What is the pointed portion of the lungs? | Apex. |
| What is the apex of the lung? | Pointed cranial portion near the thoracic inlet. |
| What is the wide portion of the lungs? | Base. |
| What is the base of the lung? | Wide caudal portion opposite the apex and adjacent to the diaphragm. |
| What is the serous membrane of the lungs? | Pleura. |
| What is pleura? | Serous or mesothelial membrane lining the thorax and reflected over the lungs. |
| What is parietal pleura? | Pleura that lines the thoracic wall or body wall side. |
| What is visceral pleura also called? | Pulmonary pleura. |
| What is visceral or pulmonary pleura? | Pleura that covers the surface of the lungs. |
| What is the pleural cavity? | Potential space between parietal and visceral pleura. |
| What is endothoracic fascia? | Subserous connective tissue associated with parietal pleura lining the thoracic wall. |
| What is the counterpart of pleura in the abdomen? | Peritoneum. |
| What are the lines or reflections of parietal pleura? | Vertebral parietal pleura/reflection, sternal parietal pleura/reflection, and diaphragmatic parietal pleura/reflection. |
| What is the vertebral parietal pleura/reflection? | Dorsal reflection that faces the thoracic vertebrae. |
| What is the sternal parietal pleura/reflection? | Ventral reflection that faces the sternum. |
| What is the diaphragmatic parietal pleura/reflection? | Caudal reflection that faces the diaphragm. |
| What is the mediastinum? | Potential space at the midline of the thoracic cavity between the right and left lungs. |
| Where can the mediastinum be seen? | In radiographs. |
| What are the divisions or regions of the mediastinum? | Precardial, cardial, and postcardial mediastinum. |
| What is “the-cardial” corrected to? | Cardial. |
| What is the precardial mediastinum? | Region cranial to the heart. |
| What is the cardial mediastinum? | Region at the level of the heart or heart proper. |
| What is the postcardial mediastinum? | Region caudal to the heart. |
| What structures pass through or are present in the precardial mediastinum? | Trachea, esophagus, blood vessels, nerves, and thymus. |
| What structures pass through or are present in the cardial mediastinum? | Heart and pericardium; also esophagus, trachea/tracheal bifurcation region, thoracic duct, and nerves. |
| What structures pass through or are present in the postcardial mediastinum? | Aorta, vena azygos, thoracic duct, esophagus, and nerves. |
| What are the three components of the digestive system? | Digestive tract/alimentary canal, digestive glands, and accessory digestive structures. |
| What is the term for ingesta in the esophagus? | Bolus. |
| What is the term for ingesta inside the stomach? | Chyme. |
| What is the pH of chyme? | Strongly acidic due to HCl. |
| What is the first/fixed segment of the small intestine? | Duodenum. |
| What is the longest and most absorptive part of the small intestine? | Jejunum. |
| What is the terminal part of the small intestine? | Ileum. |
| What are Peyer’s patches? | Lymphoid nodules for intestinal defense. |
| What is the longest segment of the large intestine? | Colon. |
| What is defecation? | Act of expelling feces. |
| What is the largest gland of the body? | Liver. |
| What pancreatic cells secrete pancreatic juice? | Pancreatic acinar cells. |
| What cells secrete glucagon and insulin? | Alpha cells secrete glucagon; beta cells secrete insulin. |
| What are the parts of the tongue? | Root, body, and apex. |
| What is the function of the larynx? | Regulates air, prevents aspiration, and produces voice. |
| What keeps the trachea patent? | Hyaline cartilaginous tracheal rings. |
| What is the serous membrane of the thoracic cavity and lungs? | Pleura. |
| What is the apex of the lung? | Pointed cranial portion. |
| What is the base of the lung? | Wide caudal portion adjacent to the diaphragm. |
| What is the complete alimentary tract order? | Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus. |
| What are the esophagus layers? | Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, adventitia. |
| What are the stomach and intestine layers? | Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa. |
| What are the stomach parts? | Cardia, fundus, body, pylorus. |
| What is the stomach cell reminder? | Parietal = HCl; Chief = pepsinogen. |
| What is the small intestine reminder? | Duodenum fixed; Jejunum longest/absorptive; Ileum terminal/defense. |
| What is the large intestine reminder? | Cecum, colon, rectum; anus is the terminal opening. |
| What is the pancreas reminder? | Exocrine = enzymes; Endocrine = glucagon and insulin. |
| What is the teeth reminder? | Incisor, canine, premolar, molar; layers are enamel, dentin, cementum, pulp cavity; regions are crown, neck, root. |
| What is the respiratory tract order? | Nose/nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Lungs. |
| What is the larynx cartilage reminder for recitation? | Paired arytenoid/corniculate/cuneiform; unpaired epiglottic/thyroid/cricoid. |
| What is the trachea reminder? | U-shaped hyaline cartilage rings; inner mucosa is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. |
| What is the bronchi branching reminder? | Primary → Secondary → Tertiary → Bronchioles → Alveoli. |
| What is the lung surfaces reminder? | Costal, mediastinal, interlobar, diaphragmatic. |
| What is the mediastinum reminder? | Precardial = cranial to heart; cardial = heart level; postcardial = caudal to heart. |
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