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Final review
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Nucleus | : Holds the cell's genetic information (DNA) and acts as the "instruction manual "or control center for everything the cell does. |
| Mitochondria | The powerhouses of the cell. They take nutrients from food and turn them into usable cellular energy (ATP) through cellular respiration. |
| Chloroplast | Found in autotrophic (self-feeding) cells. They capture light energy to manufacture food (sugars) via photosynthesis. |
| Cell Membrane | A flexible outer barrier that regulates and controls what enters and exits the cell. |
| Cell Wall | A rigid, outer structural layer found in plant cells (made of cellulose) and some algae/plankton. It provides protection and shape, but it is not found in animal cells. |
| Cytoplasm | The jelly-like fluid that fills the inside of a cell and holds the organelles in place. |
| Plant vs. Animal Cells | Plant cells typically feature a rigid cell wall, a large permanent vacuole, and green chloroplasts. Animal cells lack a cell wall and chloroplasts. |
| Shared Structures | Remember that even if cells look vastly different (like a single-celled plankton vs. a complex plant or animal cell), they still share fundamental life-sustaining structures such as a cell membrane,cytoplasm, a nucleus, and mitochondria to process energy. |
| Cellular respiration | Cellular respiration is a chemical process that occurs inside the mitochondria. |
| Inputs (What goes in) | Food (Glucose/Sugars) + Oxygen |
| Outputs (What comes out) | Energy (ATP) + Waste products (Carbon Dioxide and Water) |
| Respiratory System | brings oxygen into the body. |
| Circulatory System | acts as a delivery network, picking up that oxygen and pumping it through the bloodstream to every individual body cell. |
| Environmental Pressure | Extreme environments (like high altitudes with very low oxygen levels) place stress on populations. |
| Natural Selection | Over thousands of years, individuals with genetic variations that make them more efficient at surviving these harsh environments are more likely to reproduce and pass those helpful traits down to their offspring. |
| Reproduction Types | Traits are passed down through generations. Sexual reproduction introduces greater genetic variation into a population compared to asexual reproduction. |
| Asexual Reproduction | One parent creates an exact genetic copy (clone) of itself. No variation. |
| Sexual Reproduction | Two parents each contribute half (50%) of the genetic information. This shuffling of genes explains why siblings from the same parents share similarities but also have unique genetic differences. |
| Genotype | The genetic code or combination of alleles an organism has (written as letters like GG, Gg, or gg). |
| Homozygous | means having two of the same alleles (GG or gg). |
| Heterozygous | means having two different alleles (Gg). |
| Phenotype | The physical trait or appearance you can actually see (e.g., grey fur vs. black fur). |
| Punnett Squares | A grid tool used to predict the mathematical probability of offspring inheriting certain traits based on the parents' genotypes. |
| Selective Breeding / Artificial Selection | Humans choose parents with desirable, naturally occurring traits to mate together (e.g., breeding fast horses) to influence the traits of future generations over time. |
| Genetic Engineering (GMOs) | scientists directly modify an organisms genetic makeup in a lab by taking a specific gene from one species and inserting it into the DNA genome of an entirely different species.These modified traits are then passed down naturally to their offspring. |
| Natural Selection vs. GMO | In nature, if a modified organism escapes into the wild, human preferences no longer matter. Survival is dictated by whichever organism possesses the traits most advantageous for that specific natural environment. |
| Rock layers | In undisturbed sedimentary rock layers, the oldest rock layers (and the fossils inside them) are at the bottom, while the youngest layers are at the top. |
| How do organisms evolve | Looking at a timeline of Earth's history shows a clear pattern: over millions of years, life has generally transitioned from simple, single-celled organisms to increasingly complex and highly diverse multicellular organisms. |
| Photosynthesis | Photosynthesis is how producers capture energy to make food. |
| Three Requirements for photosynthesis (Inputs) | Sunlight (energy), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Water (H2O). |
| Products (Outputs) what's created by plants | Glucose (sugar/food) and Oxygen (O2). |
| Producers | Plants and algae (like oak trees or phytoplankton) are the baseline of food webs because they are the only organisms capable of converting solar energy from sun into chemical energy in glucose. |
| The Sun | The primary source of energy powering almost all life in a food web. |
| Energy Flow | Arrows in a food web diagram show the direction that energy travels (from the organism being eaten to the organism eating it). Animals cannot make their own energy; they must consume other organisms to obtain glucose for cellular respiration. |
| Order of organism structures | Cell→ Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism |
| Purpose of a fight or flight response. | An automatic survival mechanism triggered by a perceived threat or danger (or a scary movie!). It instantly prepares the body for immediate, rapid action. |
| System Interactions during a fight or flight response | It requires Nervous system, endocrine system, muscular system, and circulatory system to instantly coordinate |
| Nervous System | perceives the danger and signals the Endocrine System to release hormones (like adrenaline). |
| Circulatory System | responds by rapidly accelerating the heart rate to pump more blood to muscles. |
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