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MEDN2001
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Precentral gyrus | Primary motor cortex |
| Postcentral gyrus | Primary somatosensory cortex |
| Central sulcus | Separates motor and sensory cortex |
| Cerebellum | Coordination and motor learning |
| Basal nuclei | Muscle tone and movement regulation |
| Afferent | Sensory information, travels from the receptor to the CNS |
| Efferent | Motor information, travels CNS to muscle and produces movement. |
| Upper motor neurons | Start in the motor cortex, travel in corticospinal tract, controls lower motor neurons |
| Lower motor neurons | Start in anterior horn, travel to muscle, directly innervate muscle |
| Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway | Carries fine touch, vibration, and proprioception, crosses in the medulla |
| Spinothalamic tract | Carries pain and temperature, crosses at the spinal segment |
| Action potentials | Resting membrane potential is -70/-90 mV and the threshold is -55mV |
| What does myelination do? | Increases conduction speed. In the CNS myelinated cells are oligodendrocytes, and in the PNS myelinated cells are Schwann cells |
| What is saltatory conduction? | Action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier. It is faster and more energy efficient. |
| Epimysium | Whole muscle |
| Perimysium | Fascicle |
| Endomysium | Muscle fiber |
| Myofibril | Sarcomere |
| Sarcomere | Functional contractile unit |
| Z-disc | Boundary of sarcomere |
| A-band | Thick filament length |
| I-band | Thin filament only |
| H-zone | Thick filament only |
| M-line | Center |
| Which bands shorten during contractions? | I-band and H-zone |
| Which bands are unchanged during contractions? | A-band |
| What is the thick filament and what is the thin filament? | Myosin is the thick filament, and actin is the thin filament |
| What does myosin do? | It is the thick filament and forms cross-bridges and generates force |
| What is actin? | It is the thin filament and contains tropomyosin and troponin |
| What does tropomyosin do? | Blocks myosin binding sites |
| What does troponin do? | Binds Ca2+ |
| What happens when Ca2+ binds? | Troponin changes shape, tropomyosin moves, and myosin can bind actin |
| What is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction? | Acetylcholine |
| What is the receptor at the neuromuscular junction? | Nicotinic receptor |
| What is the signal termination at the neuromuscular junction? | Acetylcholinesterase, which breaks down acetylcholine |
| What are the contraction types? | Isometric and isotonic |
| What is isometric contraction? | Produces force, no change in the muscle length |
| What is isotonic contraction? | Results in a change in the muscle length. Concentric is when the muscle shortens and eccentric is when the muscle lengthens |
| What is a motor unit? | One motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it innervates |
| What is a motor pool? | All motor units supplying a muscle |
| What are the muscle fiber types? | Type I, Type Ila, and Type Ilb |
| What are the characteristics of Type I muscle fibers? | Slow, they have high resistance to fatigue, and have an oxidative metabolism. |
| What are the characteristics of Type Ila muscle fibers? | Medium, they have moderate resistance to fatigue, and have a mixed metabolism |
| What are the characteristics of Type Ilb muscle fibers? | Fast, they have low resistance to fatigue, and have a glycolytic metabolism |
| What are Type I muscle fibers? | Used for endurance, they have many mitochondria, and their aerobic. E.g., cyclist |
| What are Type Ilb muscle fibers? | Powerful, fast, fatigue quickly. E.g., sprint runner |
| What is temporal summation? | New stimulus arrives before relaxation complete, force increases |
| What is unfused tetanus? | Partial relaxation between contraction |
| What is fused tetanus? | No relaxation, maximum force produced |
| Where does the right side of the heart pump blood to? | The lungs |
| Where does the left side of the heart pump blood to? | The body |
| What is cardiac output? | Volume of blood pumped per minute |
| What is the cardiac output formula? | CO= HR x SV. Where HR is heart rate (beats per minute) and SV is stroke volume (mL/ beat) |
| What is the normal resting value for heart rate? | ~70 BPM |
| What is the normal resting value for stroke volume? | ~70mL |
| What is the normal resting value for cardiac output? | ~5 L/ minute |
| How is cardiac output impacted by exercise? | Heart rate and stroke volume increases, so cardiac output increases. Maximum ~20-40L/ min |
| What is stroke volume? | Amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat |
| What is the formula for stroke volume? | SV= EDV- ESV. EDV: end-diastolic volume, ESV: end-systolic volume |
| What is the typical value for EDV? | ~120mL |
| What is the typical value for ESV? | ~50mL |
| What is the typical value for SV? | ~70mL |
| What is preload? | Stretch on ventricular muscle before contraction |
| What is preload measured by? | End-diastolic volume (EDV) |
| What are the causes of increased preload? | Increased venous return and exercise |
| What is the effect of increased preload? | Increased stroke volume and wider PV loop |
| What is the Frank-Starling law? | More filling leads to more stretch which leads to stronger contraction |
| What is afterload? | Pressure ventricle must overcome to eject blood |
| What are examples of afterload? | Hypertension and vasoconstriction |
| What are the effects of increased afterload? | Harder to eject blood, increased ventricular pressure, and reduced stroke volume |
| What is the PV loop change? | Loop becomes taller (higher pressure) |
| What is the relationship between pressure, flow and resistance? | Pressure gradient increase leads to an increase in flow, and increased resistance leads to a decrease in flow |
| What causes increases in resistance? | Vasoconstriction, atherosclerosis, and smaller vessel radius |
| What is normal blood pressure? | 120/80mmHg |
| What is systolic pressure? | Pressure during ventricular contraction (~120mmHg) |
| What is diastolic pressure? | Pressure during ventricular relaxation (~80mmHg) |
| What is the formula for blood pressure? | BP= CO x TPR. CO: cardiac output. TPR: total peripheral resistance |
| What does the SA node do? | Pacemaker |
| What does the AV node do? | Delay |
| What does the bundle of His do? | Conducts to ventricles |
| What do the Purkinje fibers do? | Rapid ventricular speed |
| Why does AV delay? | Allows atrial emptying and ventricular filling before ventricular contraction |
| What is diastole? | Ventricles relaxed |
| What are the characteristics of diastole? | Low pressure, high volume, and filling occur |
| What is systole? | Ventricles contract |
| What are the characteristics of systole? | High pressure, low volume, and ejection occurs |
| What are the four phases of the cardiac cycle? | Ventricular filling, isovolumetric contraction, ejection, and isovolumetric relaxation |
| What happens in the ventricular filling phase? | Mitral valve open and volume increases |
| What is isovolumetric contraction | All valves closed, pressure rises and volume is unchanged |
| What is ejection? | Aortic valve opens and volume decreases |
| What is isovolumetric relaxation? | All valves closed, pressure falls, and volume unchanged |
| Where is the tricuspid valve located? | RA -> RV |
| Where is the mitral valve located? | LA -> LV |
| Where is the pulmonary valve? | RV -> pulmonary valve |
| Where is the aortic valve? | LV -> aorta |
| What is S1 "lub"? | Close of mitral valve and tricuspid valve, beginning of systole |
| What is S2 "dub"? | Closure of aortic valve and pulmonary valve, beginning of diastole |
| What is calcium-induced calcium release (CICR)? | Cardiac muscle's main mechanism |
| What does chronotropic effect? | Heart rate |
| What does dromotropic effect? | Conduction speed |
| What does inotropic effect? | Contractile force |
| What are the sympathetic effects? | Positive chronotropy, dromotropy, and inotropy |
| What are the parasympathetic effects? | Negative chronotropy, dromotropy, and inotropy |
| What does the baroreceptor reflex do? | Detects stretch (blood pressure) |
| Where are the baroreceptor reflexes located? | Receptors located in the carotid sinus and aortic arch |
| What cardiac effect affect the Frank-Starling curve? | Inotropy. Chronotropy and dromotropy do not affect the curve |
| What triggers renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)? | Decreased blood volume, decreased blood pressure, decreased renal perfusion leads to the kidney releasing renin |
| What are the sites of aldosterone? | Distal tubule and collecting duct |
| What does aldosterone affect? | Increased sodium reabsorption, increased water reabsorption, increased potassium secretion, and increased hydrogen ion secretion |
| What is glomerular filtration rate? (GFR) | Volume of plasma filtered per minute. Normal =~125mL/ per minute |
| What is the GFR formula? | GFR= Kf x NFP. Kf: filtration coefficient, NFP: net filtration pressure |
| What are the factors affecting GFR? | Glomerular hydrostatic pressure, bowman's capsule pressure, glomerular oncotic pressure and the filtration coefficient |
| How does glomerular hydrostatic pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases afferent dilation and mild efferent constriction. This increases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does Bowman's capsule pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases kidney stones and enlarges the prostate. This decreases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does glomerular oncotic pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases dehydration, which decreases glomerular filtration rate, decreases hypoproteinaemia, which increases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does the filtration coefficient affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases mesangial relaxation, which increases glomerular filtration rate. Decreases mesangial contraction, diabetic nephropathy, and hypertension, which leads to decrease in glomerular filtration rate |
| What are the components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | Macula densa, |
| What are the sites of aldosterone? | Distal tubule and collecting duct |
| What does aldosterone affect? | Increased sodium reabsorption, increased water reabsorption, increased potassium secretion, and increased hydrogen ion secretion |
| What is glomerular filtration rate? (GFR) | Volume of plasma filtered per minute. Normal =~125mL/ per minute |
| What is the GFR formula? | GFR= Kf x NFP. Kf: filtration coefficient, NFP: net filtration pressure |
| What are the factors affecting GFR? | Glomerular hydrostatic pressure, bowman's capsule pressure, glomerular oncotic pressure and the filtration coefficient |
| How does glomerular hydrostatic pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases afferent dilation and mild efferent constriction. This increases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does Bowman's capsule pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases kidney stones and enlarges the prostate. This decreases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does glomerular oncotic pressure affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases dehydration, which decreases glomerular filtration rate, decreases hypoproteinaemia, which increases glomerular filtration rate |
| How does the filtration coefficient affect glomerular filtration rate? | Increases mesangial relaxation, which increases glomerular filtration rate. Decreases mesangial contraction, diabetic nephropathy, and hypertension, which leads to decrease in glomerular filtration rate |
| What are the components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | Macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, extraglomerular (Lacis) cells |
| What does the descending limb in the Loop of Henle? | The descending limb, it is permeable to water and impermeable to salt which results in the filtrate becoming more concentrated |
| What does the thick ascending limb in the Loop of Henle? | It is not permeable to water, transports NKCC2, and the filtrate becomes dilute |
| What is ADH (vasopressin) | Released from the posterior pituitary, causes plasma osmolarity to increase, blood volume decreases |
| What does ADH do in the collecting duct? | Inserts Aquaporin-2 channels, which results in increased water reabsorption |
| What happens when there is no ADH? | Leads to dilute urine and increased water loss |
| Why is urea recycling important? | Maintains medullary osmatic gradient |
| What is the mechanism of urea recycling? | In the medullary collecting duct urea diffuses into the medulla and re-enters Loop of Henle, which increases medullary osmolarity |
| Where is potassium reabsorbed? | PCT and TAL |
| Where is potassium secreted? | Collecting duct |
| What hormone affects potassium absorption? | Aldosterone |
| What do Type A intercalated cells do? | Secrete hydrogen ions, reabsorbs HCO3-. Activated during acidosis |
| What do Type B intercalated cells do? | Secrete HCO3-, reabsorbs hydrogen ions. Activated during alkalosis |
| What is ventilation? | Movement of air into and out of the lungs |
| What is respiration? | Gas exchange |
| What is external respiration | Alveoli to and from blood |
| What is internal respiration? | Blood to and from the tissues |
| What is cellular respiration? | Mitochondrial ATP production |
| What is the respiratory function of the medulla? | Primary respiratory center. It generates respiratory rhythm, controls inspiration, and controls airway defence reflexes |
| What do the pons do? | Modify breathing patterns, controls breathing rate and depth and smooths transitions between inspiration and expiration |
| Where are central chemoreceptors located? | Medulla |
| What do central chemoreceptors do? | Detect CO2 indirectly through hydrogen ions in the CSF |
| What drives ventilation? | Increase in CO2 which leads to an increase in hydrogen ions which leads to increased ventilation |
| Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located? | Carotid bodies and aortic bodies |
| What do peripheral chemoreceptors detect? | Decreased PO2, increased PCO2, and decreased pH |
| What is the function of the conducting zone in respiratory tract? | Air transport, warming, and humidification |
| How many lobes does the right lung have? | 3 lobes |
| How many lobes does the left lung have? | 2 lobes |
| Which lung is larger? | The right lung |
| Which lung has a cardiac notch? | The left lung |
| What is the function of alveoli? | The site of gas exchange |
| What are the alveolar cell types? | Type I pneumocytes, type II pneumocytes, and alveolar macrophages |
| What are type I pneumocytes? | Their purpose is gas diffusion, and they are thin squamous cells |
| What are type II pneumocytes? | Their purpose is to produce surfactant. They decrease surface tension and increase compliance and they prevent collapse |
| What do alveolar macrophages do? | They perform phagocytosis and remove debris and pathogens |
| How do gases move? | From high partial pressure to low partial pressure |
| What is the path of oxygen? | Alveolus -> blood -> tissue |
| What is the path of carbon dioxide? | Tissue -> blood -> Alveolus |
| What is ventilation? | Airflow to alveoli |
| What is perfusion? | Blood flow to alveoli |
| What shape is the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve? | Sigmoidal due to cooperative binding |
| What happens during inspiration? | Thoracic volume increases and pressure decreases while air enters |
| What happens during expiration? | Thoracic volume decreases and pressure increases while air exits |
| What is the pneumothorax? | Air enters the pleural space. This results in loss of negative intrapleural pressure which leads to the lung collapsing |
| What causes pneumothorax? | Trauma, ruptured alveolus, and spontaneous pneumothorax |
| What is IRV? | Inspiratory reserve volume: extra inspired air |
| What is ERV? | Expiratory reserve volume: extra expired air |
| What is RV? | Residual volume: air remaining after maximal expiration. It cannot be measured directly with spirometry |
Created by:
Samara Hayes