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Psychology Chapter 6
6A, 6B, 6C, 6D
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Consciousness | the level of awareness an individual has of their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and existence |
| Psychological construct | an agreed upon description and understanding of psychological phenomena that cannot be overtly measured or observed |
| Psychological construct in terms of consciousness | a person cannot directly observe or measure consciousness, but rather it needs to be inferred from other measures, such as brain wave patterns. |
| Consciousness can be divided into two different types of consciousness: | normal waking consciousness (NWC) and altered states of consciousness (ASC) |
| Normal waking consciousness (NWC) | a state of consciousness in which an individual is awake and aware |
| Altered state of consciousness (ASC) | a state of consciousness that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness in terms of quality of experience and levels of awareness |
| Altered states of consciousness can be further categorised into induced or naturally occurring. | Naturally occurring altered state of consciousness, Induced altered state of consciousness |
| Naturally occurring altered states of consci consciousness continuumousness | a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs without intervention eg sleep and daydreaming |
| Induced altered states of consciousness | a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs due to a purposeful action or aid eg Meditation, hypnosis, influence of alcohol and/ or drugs |
| consciousness continuum | a visual representation of the different states of consciousness that progress from lower levels of awareness to higher levels of awareness |
| meaning | The more aware we are of our thoughts, feelings, perceptions and surroundings, the higher the level of consciousness |
| sleep | a regular and naturally occurring altered state of consciousness that involves a loss of awareness and disengagement with internal and external stimuli |
| Characteristics of sleep | a reduced ability to control behaviour • a reduction in the control we have over thoughts, for example, we lack control over what we dream about • less accurate understanding of the passage of time • perceptual and cognitive distortions. |
| what can sleep be considered | a psychological construct. This is because the subjective experience of sleep cannot be overtly measured, yet we still have a general understanding of what it is and that it exists. |
| Sleep is divided into two different types of sleep. | REM AND NREM |
| REM (rapid eye movement) sleep | a type of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement, high levels of brain activity, and low levels of physical activity, involves low levels of somatic nervous system activity, meaning there are low levels of movement in this stage. |
| NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep | a type of sleep characterised by a lack of rapid eye movement and is subdivided into three different stages |
| Sleep episode | the full duration of time spent asleep, made up of multiple repeated cycles of REM and NREM sleep, called sleep cycles |
| Sleep cycle | an approximately 90-minute-period that repeats during a sleep episode in which an individual progresses through stages of REM and NREM sleep |
| hypnogram | a sleep graph that tracks the proportion of time spent in each stage of sleep, including awakenings, throughout a sleep episode |
| Characteristics of REM sleep pt 1 | time spent in REM sleep increases as the sleep episode progresses, with the largest amount of REM in the sleep cycle occurring immediately before waking. |
| Characteristics of REM sleep pt 2 | Early in the night, REM sleep may only last a few minutes, but later during the night, it can last up to an hour. |
| Characteristics of NREM sleep pt 1 | The amount of time spent in NREM sleep is highest during the first half of a sleep episode. • NREM sleep makes up approximately 75–80% of a sleep episode. • NREM sleep tends to become shorter with each sleep cycle. |
| The three stages of NREM sleep | NREM stage 1, 2, 3 |
| NREM stage 1 pt 1 | moving into stage 1, sleeper transitions from awake into light sleep, transition is signified by the experience of the hypnagogic state, in which some people experience feelings of floating or falling, or a sudden jerk (referred to as a hypnic jerk). |
| NREM stage 1 pt 2 | In this stage, the sleeper loses awareness of themselves and their surroundings but is still aware of faint sounds in the environment. The sleeper can be easily woken in stage 1. |
| NREM stage 2 | the sleeper is still in a relatively light sleep. Individuals spend the majority of their time asleep in NREM stage 2. In this stage, the sleeper is considered ‘truly’ asleep, due to the types of brain waves occurring. |
| NREM stage 3 | sleeper is in a deep stage of sleep, difficult to wake the sleeper in this stage If the sleeper is woken during this stage they are likely to feel drowsy and disoriented. During this stage, sleepwalking and sleep talking are most likely to occur. |
| Some of these measures of consciousness (and consequently sleep) include: | • the electroencephalograph (EEG) • the electromyograph (EMG) • the electro-oculograph (EOG) • sleep diaries • video monitoring. |
| which ones are objective | EEGs, EMGs, and EOGs are physiological measures( provide reliable, unbiased, quantitative data that can indicate someone’s state of consciousness)do not provide qualitative detail about the personal experience of sleepeg thoughts or feelings. |
| problems of objective measures | Additionally, changes in physiological responses may be due to factors other than a change in consciousness, thus the findings may lack validity at times. |
| which ones are subjective | sleep diaries and video monitoring,info is provided by an individual and is related to their personal experiences It is important to note that subjective measures can provide both qualitative and quantitative data |
| negatives of subjective measures | do not provide a direct observation and the accuracy and reliability of such measures can be limited due to their subjective nature. |
| why is measuring sleep difficult | can be disruptive, invasive, or require an individual to sleep in a sleep laboratoryChanges to an individual’s regular sleep patterns, eg record their sleep or having electrodes attached , can influence the quality and quantity of sleep. |
| ultimately | Therefore, sleep measures may not provide a true reflection of an individual’s usual sleeping patterns. |
| Electroencephalograph (EEG) | a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the brain in the form of brain waves |
| what do they do | Electrodes measure the very small voltages created by the synchronised activity of large numbers of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Changes in brain wave activity can provide information about a person’s level of consciousness |
| Brain waves vary in | frequency (rate) ( number of brain waves that occur per second) and amplitude (height)- ( the intensity and height of the brain waves |
| what does this indicate | what state of consciousness an individual is experiencing, High frequency = more alert Low frequency = less alert High amplitude = less alert Low amplitude = more alert |
| wyas to remember | HALF (asleep) LAHF (awake) |
| NWC EEG | Awake/alert: fast (high frequency) and small (low amplitude) brain waves Awake/relaxed: medium-high frequency and low-medium amplitude brain waves |
| ASC EEG | Deep sleep slow (low frequency) and big (high amplitude) brain waves Light sleep: medium frequency and medium-high amplitude brain waves |
| what to remember about EEGs | that EEG recordings show specific brain waves to represent the electrical activity of the brain, rather than that the brain shows specific brain waves. |
| limitatiosna nd positives of EEGS | useful for sleep studies or diagnoses of patients with brain damage or a neurological or mental disorder. measures neural activity underneath a thick and hard skull and thus is not entirely precise. |
| Electromyograph (EMG) | a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the body’s muscles |
| how does it work | Electrodes are attached to the skin directly above the muscles and the recording is similar to that of an EEG and EOG. Particularly useful to determine whether a person is awake or asleep, if asleep whether it is REM or NREM sleep. |
| REM EMG | EMG readings show low activity, due to there being low levels of physiological activity during this type of sleep. |
| NREM EMG | EMG readings show medium/moderate activity, due to there being some physiological activity during this type of sleep. However, as NREM sleep stages progress, an EMG is likely to show lower activity as movement is less likely to occur |
| useful tip | EMG reading in a given scenario. In order to do this, use the language ‘low activity’, ‘medium activity,’ or ‘high activity’. |
| Electro-oculograph (EOG) | a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the muscles surrounding the eyes, which control eye movement. |
| how does it work | Electrodes are attached to areas on the face around the eyes and the recording procedure is similar to that used for the EEG. Particularly useful to determine whether a person is in REM (high activity) or NREM sleep (low activity). |
| why is eye movemnt recorded | the physiological response is oen of teh mian distinguishing features of REM and NREM |
| REM EOG | an individual experiences rapid eye movement, so an EOG is likely to show high activity |
| NREM EOG | an individual does not experience rapid eye movement, so an EOG is likely to show low activity. |
| Sleep diaries | a record containing self-reported descriptions from an individual about their sleeping periods, including an estimated time spent sleeping and judgements they might have about the quality and nature of their sleep |
| what doe sit include | both qualitative and quantitative information. This information is recorded over a period of time, most commonly a few weeks. This method is subjective and therefore can be less reliable than objective measures, |
| what can it record | the duration of sleep • the quality of sleep • thoughts and feelings before going to sleep • thoughts and feelings after waking up • behaviours before going to sleep • behaviours after waking up • the number of times sleep was disrupted. |
| what does it leave room for | error and innacuracy as it is interpreted |
| Video monitoring | the use of camera and audio technologies to record an individual as they sleep |
| what does it provide | Involves cameras and audio technology to record externally observable physiological responses accompany sleep. It is most often used when studying someone with a sleep disorder. involve subjective interpretation |
| what does it do | Used to track sleeping and waking periods movements and activities during sleep sounds made during sleep usually used in conjunction with objective measures |
| what is it useful for | individuals with sleep disorders, as their behaviours during sleep can be observed. Video monitoring can also be used in conjunction with physiological measures to give validity to a phenomenon |
| Biological rhythms | repeated biological processes that are regulated by internal mechanisms, regulated and controlled by an internal system called a biological clock. |
| 2 differnet types | circadian and ultradian rhythms. |
| Circadian rhythms | biological and behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle that lasts around 24 hours |
| Sleep-wake cycle | a 24-hour-cycle that is made up of time spent sleeping and time spent awake and alert, type of circadium rythm as it involves biological changes that occur over 24 hours as transition from sleep to waklefulness |
| Ultradian rhythms | biological and behavioural changes that occur in a cycle that lasts less than 24 hours |
| sleep episode | the full duration of time spent asleep, from falling asleep until waking up, Throughout an individual’s sleep episode, an individual experiences sleep cycles. A sleep cycle is a repeated approximate 90-minute-period |
| amount of slepe epidodes | The number of sleep cycles an individual experiences in a sleep episode depends on an individual’s sleep duration. However, on average, there are usually around five or six sleep cycles during a typical sleep episode. |
| sleep cycle is then an example of.. | an ultradian rhythm. This is because sleep cycles involve changes in physiological activity that repeat in a cyclic manner in less than 24 hours. |
| The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) | an area of the hypothalamus that is responsible for regulating an individual’s sleep-wake patterns |
| what is it | A nucleus is a cluster of neurons. The Suprachiasmatic nucleus is an area of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a control center for hunger, temp, sleep, thirst. It communicates with the endocrine system (hormones) |
| How does the SCN regulate the sleep-wake cycle? | The SCN receives information from both external and internal cues to help modulate the circadian rhythm. • External cues involve information from the environment • Internal cues involve info that originates within the body eg cortisol levels and genes |
| how does this work | in terms of the sleep-wake cycle (a circadian rhythm), the SCN communicates with the nearby pineal gland to release the hormone melatonin |
| the suprachiasmatic nucleus can operate independently on an approximately 24-hour cycle but is also influenced by zeitgebers | |
| eg of zertbegers | daylight allows the SCN to reset every 24 hours daylight acts by stimulating light sensitive neurons in retinas which then sends neural messages to the suprachiasmatic nucleus. |
| what does this message do | When light is detected, the suprachiasmatic nucleus sends inhibitory messages to the pineal gland, whereas when no light is detected, the suprachiasmatic nucleus sends excitatory neural messages to the pineal gland. |
| negative feedback loop | When there is a need for melatonin the SCN will signal to the pineal gland to release it. When there is no longer a need for melatonin, the SCN will signal to the pineal gland to stop releasing it. |
| melatonin | a hormone released by the pineal gland typically at night-time to induce sleep as part of the sleepwake cycle, body produces it naturally |
| when is melatonin released | At the onset of darkness in the evening, levels of melatonin start to rise, levels should reach a level that starts to induce a sense of calmness, which promotes sleepiness, leading to an individual naturally wanting to induce sleep |
| does melatonin induce sleep | does not directly induce sleep, but rather promotes a state of calm and relaxation. Once produced and released, it travels to all areas of the body via the bloodstream. The level of melatonin in the body helps to regulate the sleep-wake cycle. |
| There are many different characteristics of sleep that can change over the lifespan. These include: | • sleep onset • sleep duration • awakenings during sleep • proportion of REM sleep • proportion of NREM sleep. |
| Neonate/newborn (0-2 weeks) | approx. 16 hours 50% 50% REM AND NREM |
| Infants (up to 2yr) | approx. 13-14, 65% NREM 35% REM |
| Childhood (2-14) | approx. 11-12 80% NREM 20% REM |
| Adolescence (14-18) | approx. 9 80% NREM 20 %REM |
| Adulthood (18-75) | approx. 7-8 80 % NREM 20% REM |
| Old Age (75 and above) | approx. 6 80% NREM 20% REM |
| why do sleep requirments change | because their physical and cognitive needs change over time. REM sleep has been suggested to be important for the brain and cognitive development and rest, whilst NREM sleep has been suggested to be important for physiological rest and development. |
| NREM supportive evidence | Marathon runners spend more time in NREM sleep sleep activates growth and increases immunity Removal of toxins that build up in the brain when awake. |
| REM supportive evidence | Cognitive decline occurs with sleep deprivation increased activity in the areas of the brain that regulate emotion, supporting emotional stability Storage of new info and conversion of short-term memories into long-term memories |
| Neonatal period and infancy | Time spent in REM sleep is significantly high because newborns and infants are experiencing rapid brain development. |
| Childhood | Time spent in REM sleep starts to reduce as the pace of brain development steadies. |
| Adolescence pt 1 | sleep patterns can change due to various social factors that play a role in the decreased proportion of sleep during adolescence, such as having to wake up early for school and having social commitments during the nighttime. |
| Adolescence pt 2 | Adolescents are also more prone to delayed circadian phase disorders in which their biological ‘clocks’ are not in alignment with the demands of their environments. |
| Adulthood and old age | In older adults, lower levels of sleep tend to be attributed to ill-health and an increase in the prevalence of sleep disorders, as well as the reduced amount of cognitive and physical growth within this age group |
| why dont people meet these hours | s sleep requirements, meaning the amount of sleep an individual requires, at their specific age, in order to healthily function. However, due to other factors (whether internal or external), individuals often do not meet these requirements. |
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