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bio final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| CHAPTER 8: CELLULAR BASIS OF REPRODUCTION & INHERITANCE | |
| Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Cell Division * reproduction at the cellular level that produces two genetically identical daughter cells $ | |
| Unicellular Organism * organism made of one cell that uses cell division for reproduction $ | |
| Multicellular Organism * organism made of many cells that uses cell division for growth, repair, and replacement $ | |
| Asexual Reproduction * reproduction involving one parent that produces genetically identical offspring $ | |
| Sexual Reproduction * reproduction involving two parents that produces genetically varied offspring $ | |
| Chromatin * unwound DNA and proteins found in the nucleus $ | |
| Chromosome * condensed DNA structure containing genes $ | |
| Gene * unit of DNA that controls a trait $ | |
| Homologous Chromosomes * chromosome pair with the same genes, size, and shape $ | |
| Diploid (2n) * cell containing two sets of chromosomes $ | |
| Haploid (n) * cell containing one set of chromosomes $ | |
| Sister Chromatids * identical copies of a chromosome joined together $ | |
| Centromere * region holding sister chromatids together $ | |
| Cell Cycle * sequence of growth and division in a cell's life $ | |
| Interphase * growth and preparation stage before cell division $ | |
| G1 Phase * cell grows and duplicates organelles $ | |
| S Phase * DNA replication occurs $ | |
| G2 Phase * cell prepares for mitosis $ | |
| Mitosis * division of the nucleus producing identical daughter cells $ | |
| Prophase * chromosomes condense and nuclear membrane breaks down $ | |
| Metaphase * chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell $ | |
| Anaphase * sister chromatids separate and move apart $ | |
| Telophase * nuclear membranes reform and chromosomes uncoil $ | |
| Cytokinesis * division of cytoplasm into two daughter cells $ | |
| Checkpoint * control point that regulates cell cycle progression $ | |
| Apoptosis * programmed cell death $ | |
| Cancer * uncontrolled cell growth and division $ | |
| Tumor * mass of abnormal cells $ | |
| Benign Tumor * tumor that remains at its original location $ | |
| Malignant Tumor * tumor that invades nearby tissues $ | |
| Metastasis * spread of cancer cells to other parts of the body $ | |
| Proto-oncogene * normal gene that promotes cell division $ | |
| Oncogene * mutated proto-oncogene that causes excessive cell division $ | |
| Tumor-Suppressor Gene * gene that slows cell division or repairs DNA $ | |
| Autosome * non-sex chromosome $ | |
| Sex Chromosome * chromosome that determines sex $ | |
| Gamete * reproductive sex cell $ | |
| Meiosis * cell division producing haploid gametes $ | |
| Fertilization * fusion of sperm and egg to form a zygote $ | |
| Zygote * diploid cell formed during fertilization $ | |
| Independent Assortment * random alignment of homologous pairs during meiosis $ | |
| Crossing Over * exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes $ | |
| Nondisjunction * failure of chromosomes to separate correctly during meiosis $ | |
| Karyotype * organized display of chromosomes $ | |
| Trisomy * extra chromosome condition (2n+1) $ | |
| Monosomy * missing chromosome condition (2n-1) $ | |
| Deletion * loss of a chromosome segment $ | |
| Duplication * repeated chromosome segment $ | |
| Inversion * chromosome segment reversed in order $ | |
| Translocation * chromosome segment attached to a nonhomologous chromosome $ | |
| CHAPTER 8 ANALYSIS QUESTIONS | |
| Why is cell division important in multicellular organisms? * it allows growth, repair of damaged tissue, and replacement of old cells $ | |
| How does mitosis ensure genetic continuity? * DNA is copied before division and each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes $ | |
| Why are gametes haploid? * so fertilization restores the diploid chromosome number $ | |
| What is the significance of crossing over? * it increases genetic variation by exchanging genes between homologous chromosomes $ | |
| How does independent assortment create variation? * homologous pairs line up randomly during meiosis creating different chromosome combinations $ | |
| How is meiosis different from mitosis? * meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells while mitosis produces two identical diploid cells $ | |
| How do cancer cells differ from normal cells? * they ignore cell cycle checkpoints and divide uncontrollably $ | |
| How does cancer spread through the body? * cancer cells undergo metastasis and move into other tissues $ | |
| What causes cancer at the genetic level? * mutations in proto-oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes $ | |
| What happens if nondisjunction occurs? * gametes receive abnormal chromosome numbers leading to disorders after fertilization $ | |
| CHAPTER 5: CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE & FUNCTION | |
| Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Lipid * biomolecule used for energy storage, insulation, and membranes $ | |
| Hydrophobic * repelled by water $ | |
| Phospholipid * lipid with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails $ | |
| Phospholipid Bilayer * double layer that forms the cell membrane $ | |
| Steroid * lipid made of four carbon rings $ | |
| Cholesterol * lipid that maintains membrane fluidity $ | |
| Plasma Membrane * selectively permeable boundary of the cell $ | |
| Selective Permeability * allows some substances through but not others $ | |
| Homeostasis * maintenance of stable internal conditions $ | |
| Fluid Mosaic Model * membrane composed of moving phospholipids and proteins $ | |
| Channel Protein * protein passageway for specific molecules $ | |
| Transport Protein * protein that moves substances across membranes $ | |
| Receptor Protein * protein that receives signals $ | |
| Glycoprotein * protein with attached carbohydrate used for identification $ | |
| Glycolipid * lipid with attached carbohydrate used for identification $ | |
| Passive Transport * movement without energy from high to low concentration $ | |
| Active Transport * movement requiring ATP from low to high concentration $ | |
| Concentration Gradient * difference in concentration between two areas $ | |
| Equilibrium * equal concentration throughout a system $ | |
| Diffusion * movement of molecules from high to low concentration $ | |
| Osmosis * diffusion of water across a membrane $ | |
| Aquaporin * channel protein for water $ | |
| Tonicity * ability of a solution to affect water movement $ | |
| Isotonic * equal solute concentration on both sides $ | |
| Hypotonic * lower solute concentration outside the cell $ | |
| Hypertonic * higher solute concentration outside the cell $ | |
| Facilitated Diffusion * passive transport through protein channels $ | |
| Endocytosis * bringing materials into a cell using vesicles $ | |
| Exocytosis * releasing materials from a cell using vesicles $ | |
| CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS QUESTIONS | |
| Why do phospholipids form a bilayer? * hydrophilic heads face water while hydrophobic tails avoid water $ | |
| Why is membrane fluidity important? * allows membrane proteins to function and membrane to adapt $ | |
| Why can't ions pass directly through the membrane? * they are charged and repelled by the hydrophobic interior $ | |
| What happens to a cell in a hypotonic solution? * water enters and the cell swells or may burst $ | |
| What happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution? * water leaves and the cell shrinks $ | |
| How is facilitated diffusion different from diffusion? * facilitated diffusion requires transport proteins while diffusion does not $ | |
| Why is active transport necessary? * it moves substances against their concentration gradients $ | |
| CHAPTERS 5 & 6: ENERGY, ATP, & ENZYMES | |
| Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Energy * ability to do work $ | |
| Kinetic Energy * energy of motion $ | |
| Potential Energy * stored energy $ | |
| Chemical Energy * energy stored in chemical bonds $ | |
| ATP * main energy-carrying molecule of cells $ | |
| ADP * lower-energy molecule formed when ATP loses a phosphate $ | |
| ATP Hydrolysis * breakdown of ATP releasing energy $ | |
| Phosphorylation * addition of a phosphate group to a molecule $ | |
| Enzyme * protein that speeds up chemical reactions $ | |
| Metabolism * all chemical reactions in an organism $ | |
| Activation Energy * energy required to start a reaction $ | |
| Substrate * reactant an enzyme acts on $ | |
| Active Site * region where substrate binds $ | |
| Induced Fit * enzyme changes shape to fit substrate $ | |
| Denaturation * loss of enzyme shape and function $ | |
| Competitive Inhibitor * molecule that blocks the active site $ | |
| Noncompetitive Inhibitor * molecule that changes enzyme shape $ | |
| ENERGY & ENZYME ANALYSIS QUESTIONS | |
| Why do cells need ATP? * ATP provides usable energy for cellular processes $ | |
| Why is ATP called the energy currency of the cell? * it stores and releases energy when needed $ | |
| How do enzymes speed up reactions? * they lower activation energy $ | |
| What happens when an enzyme denatures? * it loses its shape and can no longer function properly $ | |
| Why are enzymes reusable? * they are not consumed during reactions $ | |
| How do competitive inhibitors work? * they compete with substrates for the active site $ | |
| CHAPTER 6: CELLULAR RESPIRATION | |
| Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Cellular Respiration * process that converts glucose into ATP $ | |
| Glucose * simple sugar used as fuel for cells $ | |
| Aerobic Respiration * respiration requiring oxygen $ | |
| Anaerobic Respiration * respiration without oxygen $ | |
| Mitochondria * organelle where cellular respiration occurs $ | |
| Matrix * fluid-filled region of mitochondria $ | |
| Cristae * folded inner membrane of mitochondria $ | |
| Oxidation * loss of electrons $ | |
| Reduction * gain of electrons $ | |
| Coenzyme * molecule that carries electrons $ | |
| Glycolysis * first stage of respiration occurring in cytoplasm $ | |
| Pyruvate * product of glycolysis $ | |
| Acetyl-CoA * molecule entering the Krebs cycle $ | |
| Krebs Cycle * stage producing electron carriers and ATP $ | |
| Electron Transport Chain * stage producing most ATP $ | |
| ATP Synthase * enzyme that generates ATP $ | |
| Fermentation * process allowing ATP production without oxygen $ | |
| Lactic Acid Fermentation * fermentation producing lactic acid $ | |
| Alcoholic Fermentation * fermentation producing ethanol and carbon dioxide $ | |
| CELLULAR RESPIRATION ANALYSIS QUESTIONS | |
| Why is oxygen important in respiration? * it accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain $ | |
| Where is most ATP produced? * electron transport chain $ | |
| Why does anaerobic respiration produce less ATP? * it does not use the electron transport chain $ | |
| What is the purpose of the Krebs cycle? * to load electron carriers with high-energy electrons $ | |
| What happens to carbon dioxide produced during respiration? * it is released as waste $ | |
| Memorize the equation * Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP $ | |
| CHAPTER 7: PHOTOSYNTHESIS | |
| Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Photosynthesis * process that converts light energy into chemical energy $ | |
| Chloroplast * organelle where photosynthesis occurs $ | |
| Thylakoid * membrane structure containing chlorophyll $ | |
| Granum * stack of thylakoids $ | |
| Stroma * fluid surrounding thylakoids $ | |
| Chlorophyll * pigment that absorbs light energy $ | |
| Light-Dependent Reactions * reactions that require light and produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen $ | |
| Calvin Cycle * reactions that use ATP and NADPH to produce glucose $ | |
| Carbon Fixation * incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic molecules $ | |
| NADPH * electron carrier used in photosynthesis $ | |
| PHOTOSYNTHESIS ANALYSIS QUESTIONS | |
| Why are plants green? * chlorophyll reflects green light $ | |
| What are the inputs of photosynthesis? * carbon dioxide, water, and light energy $ | |
| What are the outputs of photosynthesis? * glucose and oxygen $ | |
| Why is photosynthesis important? * it provides food and oxygen for most life on Earth $ | |
| How are photosynthesis and respiration connected? * the products of one are the reactants of the other $ | |
| Where does the Calvin Cycle occur? * stroma of the chloroplast $ | |
| Where do light-dependent reactions occur? * thylakoid membranes $ | |
| Memorize the equation * CO₂ + H₂O + Light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂ $ | |
| MUST-KNOW COMPARISON FLASHCARDS | |
| Mitosis vs Meiosis * mitosis produces 2 identical diploid cells; meiosis produces 4 unique haploid cells $ | |
| Diploid vs Haploid * diploid has two chromosome sets (2n); haploid has one set (n) $ | |
| Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction * asexual produces identical offspring; sexual produces genetically varied offspring $ | |
| Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration * aerobic requires oxygen and makes ~36 ATP; anaerobic requires no oxygen and makes 2-4 ATP $ | |
| Diffusion vs Active Transport * diffusion requires no energy; active transport requires ATP $ | |
| Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration * photosynthesis stores energy in glucose; respiration releases energy from glucose $ Vocabulary Flashcards | |
| Gene * a small section of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein $ | |
| Allele * different versions of the same gene $ | |
| Genotype * the combination of alleles an organism has for a trait $ | |
| Phenotype * the physical characteristics of an organism resulting from genotype and environment $ | |
| Dominant * an allele that is always expressed when present $ | |
| Recessive * an allele that is only expressed when two recessive alleles are present $ | |
| Homozygous * having two identical alleles for a gene (AA or aa) $ | |
| Heterozygous * having two different alleles for a gene (Aa) $ | |
| Monohybrid Cross * a genetic cross involving one trait $ | |
| Law of Segregation * allele pairs separate during gamete formation so each gamete gets one allele $ | |
| Dihybrid Cross * a genetic cross involving two traits $ | |
| Law of Independent Assortment * alleles for different traits separate independently during gamete formation $ | |
| Codominance * both alleles are fully expressed at the same time $ | |
| Incomplete Dominance * heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes $ | |
| Multiple Alleles * a gene has more than two possible alleles in a population $ | |
| Polygenic Inheritance * a trait controlled by multiple genes $ | |
| Lethal Allele * an allele that causes death of the organism carrying it $ | |
| Sex-Linked Trait * a trait controlled by a gene located on a sex chromosome $ | |
| Carrier * an individual who has a recessive allele but does not express the trait $ | |
| X Chromosome * sex chromosome that carries many genes, including sex-linked traits $ | |
| Gamete * a sex cell containing one allele for each gene $ | |
| Meiosis * cell division that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes $ | |
| P Generation * the parental generation in a genetic cross $ | |
| F1 Generation * the first offspring generation from the parental cross $ | |
| F2 Generation * the offspring produced when F1 individuals are crossed $ | |
| Mendel Flashcards | |
| Mendel's First Experiment * monohybrid cross between homozygous purple and homozygous white flowers $ | |
| Result of F1 Generation in First Experiment * all purple flowers because purple is dominant $ | |
| Result of F2 Generation in First Experiment * 3/4 purple flowers and 1/4 white flowers $ | |
| What did Mendel conclude from the monohybrid cross? * the Law of Segregation $ | |
| Mendel's Second Experiment * dihybrid cross involving seed color and seed shape $ | |
| Result of F1 Generation in Second Experiment * all round yellow seeds $ | |
| F2 Dihybrid Ratio * 9 round yellow : 3 wrinkled yellow : 3 round green : 1 wrinkled green $ | |
| What did Mendel conclude from the dihybrid cross? * the Law of Independent Assortment $ | |
| Important Analysis Questions & Answers | |
| Why were all F1 flowers purple in Mendel's first experiment? * because the purple allele is dominant over the white allele $ | |
| Why did white flowers reappear in the F2 generation? * the recessive white allele was hidden in the F1 heterozygotes and reappeared when offspring inherited two recessive alleles $ | |
| How does the Law of Segregation explain inheritance? * each parent contributes one allele because allele pairs separate during meiosis $ | |
| Why is meiosis important for genetic variation? * it separates alleles and creates different combinations in gametes $ | |
| What evidence supported the Law of Independent Assortment? * the appearance of new trait combinations in the F2 generation of the dihybrid cross $ | |
| What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? * genotype is the allele combination; phenotype is the physical expression of those alleles $ | |
| How is codominance different from incomplete dominance? * codominance shows both traits fully, while incomplete dominance shows a blended trait $ | |
| Why can blood type be considered an example of multiple alleles? * there are three possible alleles (A, B, O) in the population $ | |
| Why is human height considered a polygenic trait? * many genes work together to determine height $ | |
| Why are males more likely to express X-linked recessive traits? * males only have one X chromosome, so any recessive allele on it will be expressed $ | |
| How can a female be a carrier for a sex-linked trait? * she has one normal allele and one recessive allele on her two X chromosomes $ | |
| Why can't males be carriers for X-linked recessive traits? * they only have one X chromosome, so they either have the trait or they do not $ | |
| What is the difference between homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive? * homozygous dominant = AA, heterozygous = Aa, homozygous recessive = aa $ | |
| If two heterozygous parents (Aa × Aa) are crossed, what percentage of offspring are expected to show the recessive trait? * 25% $ | |
| If two heterozygous parents (Aa × Aa) are crossed, what percentage are expected to be heterozygous? * 50% $ | |
| Ratios You Should Memorize | |
| Monohybrid Phenotype Ratio * 3 dominant : 1 recessive $ | |
| Monohybrid Genotype Ratio * 1 homozygous dominant : 2 heterozygous : 1 homozygous recessive $ | |
| Dihybrid Phenotype Ratio * 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 $ | |
| Probability of Recessive Trait from Aa × Aa * 25% $ | |
| Probability of Heterozygous Offspring from Aa × Aa * 50% $ | |
| Probability of Homozygous Dominant Offspring from Aa × Aa * 25% $ |
Created by:
Evie_Wright2028