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BIo Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Lipids function | Long |
| Lipids structure | Made of C, H, O with nonpolar covalent bonds; hydrophobic; no true monomer |
| Why lipids are hydrophobic | Nonpolar bonds do not interact with polar water molecules |
| Phospholipid | Molecule with hydrophilic head and 2 hydrophobic fatty acid tails |
| Phospholipid bilayer | Double layer where heads face water and tails face inward |
| Why phospholipids form bilayers | Hydrophilic heads interact with water, hydrophobic tails avoid water |
| Steroid | Lipid made of ring structures involved in signaling and membrane structure |
| Cholesterol function | Maintains membrane fluidity by preventing too rigid or too fluid structure |
| Plasma membrane | Flexible, selectively permeable boundary controlling movement in/out |
| Selective permeability | Allows some substances through but not others |
| Homeostasis | Maintaining stable internal conditions |
| Why cells need membranes | To regulate internal environment and exchange materials |
| Fluid mosaic model | Membrane is a dynamic mix of phospholipids and proteins |
| Why “fluid” | Phospholipids and proteins can move laterally |
| Why “mosaic” | Variety of proteins embedded in bilayer |
| Membrane proteins function | Transport, enzymes, receptors, identification |
| Channel protein | Allows specific molecules (like water) to pass through |
| Transport protein | Moves substances across membrane (active or passive) |
| Receptor protein | Binds signaling molecules and triggers response |
| Glycoprotein | Protein with carbohydrate chain used for cell recognition |
| Glycolipid | Lipid with carbohydrate chain used for identification |
| Why ID tags matter | Allows immune system to recognize self vs. foreign |
| Passive transport | Movement without energy (high → low concentration) |
| Active transport | Movement using ATP (low → high concentration) |
| Concentration gradient | Difference in concentration across space |
| Diffusion | Movement from high to low concentration |
| Why O₂ and CO₂ diffuse easily | Small, nonpolar molecules pass through lipid bilayer |
| Osmosis | Diffusion of water across membrane |
| Aquaporins | Channel proteins that speed up water movement |
| Tonicity | Ability of solution to cause cell to gain or lose water |
| Isotonic | Equal solute; no net water movement |
| Hypotonic | Lower solute outside; water enters cell; cell swells |
| Hypertonic | Higher solute outside; water leaves cell; cell shrinks |
| Facilitated diffusion | Movement via protein channels (no energy) |
| Active transport | Uses ATP to move substances against gradient |
| Why active transport is needed | To maintain gradients essential for cell function |
| Exocytosis | Vesicles fuse with membrane to release materials |
| Endocytosis | Membrane engulfs material to bring it inside |
| Why is membrane fluidity important | Allows proteins to function and membrane to adapt |
| How does cholesterol stabilize membranes | Prevents extremes in fluidity under temperature changes |
| Why can’t ions cross membrane easily | Charged and repelled by hydrophobic interior |
| Predict cell behavior in hypotonic solution | Cell swells and may burst (lysis) |
| Compare diffusion vs facilitated diffusion | Both passive; facilitated requires proteins |
| Energy | Capacity to do work |
| Kinetic energy | Energy of motion |
| Potential energy | Stored energy |
| Chemical energy | Energy stored in bonds |
| Cellular respiration | Breaks down glucose using oxygen to make ATP |
| Where it occurs | Mitochondria |
| Why it’s important | Converts food energy into usable ATP |
| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate; energy currency of cell |
| ATP structure | Adenine + ribose + 3 phosphate groups |
| Where energy is stored in ATP | Bonds between phosphate groups |
| ADP | Adenosine diphosphate (2 phosphates) |
| ATP hydrolysis | ATP → ADP |
| energy (releases energy) | |
| Dehydration synthesis | ADP |
| P → ATP (stores energy) | |
| Phosphorylation | Adding phosphate to energize molecule |
| Why ATP is like battery | Stores and releases energy repeatedly |
| Enzyme | Protein that speeds up reactions |
| Metabolism | All chemical reactions in cell |
| Activation energy | Energy needed to start reaction |
| How enzymes work | Lower activation energy |
| Substrate | Reactant enzyme acts on |
| Active site | Region where substrate binds |
| Induced fit | Enzyme changes shape to fit substrate |
| Enzyme specificity | Only works with specific substrate |
| Enzyme reuse | Not consumed in reactions |
| Optimal conditions | Best temp and pH for activity |
| Denaturation | Loss of shape → loss of function |
| Competitive inhibitor | Competes for active site |
| Noncompetitive inhibitor | Changes enzyme shape |
| Why inhibitors matter | Regulate metabolism |
| Why does lowering activation energy matter | Speeds reactions needed for life |
| What happens if enzyme denatures | Reaction slows or stops |
| Compare ATP and ADP | Both nucleotides; ATP has more energy |
| Why are enzymes reusable | Not changed in reaction |
| Carbohydrates function | Quick energy, storage, structure |
| Monosaccharide | Single sugar (glucose) |
| Glycogen | Animal glucose storage |
| Starch | Plant glucose storage |
| Cellulose | Plant structure (fiber) |
| Cellular respiration equation | Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP |
| Aerobic | Requires oxygen, ~36 ATP |
| Anaerobic | No oxygen, 2–4 ATP |
| Matrix | Fluid where Krebs cycle occurs |
| Cristae | Folds increasing surface area for ETC |
| Oxidation | Loss of electrons |
| Reduction | Gain of electrons |
| Coenzyme | Electron carrier (NADH, FADH₂) |
| Glycolysis location | Cytoplasm |
| Glycolysis type | Anaerobic |
| Glycolysis output | 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, NADH |
| Why ATP invested | Activation energy |
| Purpose | Convert pyruvate to Acetyl |
| Outputs | CO₂ and NADH |
| Location | Mitochondrial matrix |
| Outputs | 2 ATP, CO₂, NADH, FADH₂ |
| Purpose | Load electron carriers |
| Location | Cristae |
| Function | Use electrons to create proton gradient |
| ATP synthase | Enzyme that makes ATP using H + flow |
| Oxygen role | Final electron acceptor → Forms water |
| Output | ~32 ATP |
| Fermentation | ATP production without oxygen |
| Lactic acid fermentation | Produces lactic acid |
| Alcoholic fermentation | Produces ethanol + CO₂ |
| Why is oxygen critical in ETC | Prevents backup of electrons |
| Why is ATP yield low in anaerobic | No ETC |
| Where is most ATP made | Electron transport chain |
| What happens to CO₂ | Released as waste |
| Photosynthesis | Converts light energy → chemical energy |
| Occurs in | Chloroplast |
| Equation | CO₂ + H₂O → glucose + O₂ |
| Thylakoid | Contains chlorophyll |
| Granum | Stack of thylakoids |
| Stroma | Fluid for Calvin cycle |
| Chlorophyll | Absorbs red/blue light, reflects green |
| Why plants are green | Reflection of green wavelengths |
| Location | Thylakoid membrane |
| Inputs | Light, H₂O |
| Outputs | ATP, NADPH, O₂ |
| What happens to water | Split → oxygen released |
| Location | Stroma |
| Inputs | CO₂, ATP, NADPH |
| Output | Glucose |
| Carbon fixation | CO₂ → organic molecule |
| Photosynthesis produces | Glucose + O₂ |
| Respiration uses | Glucose + O₂ |
| Why interdependent | Products of one = reactants of other |
| Why is photosynthesis essential | Provides energy base for ecosystems |
| Why animals depend on plants | Plants produce oxygen and food |
| What happens to energy in glucose | Stored chemical energy |
| Homologous pairs | chromosomes that contain the same genes, one from each parent |
| Autosomes | non-sex chromosomes; humans have 22 homologous pairs of autosomes |
| Sex chromosomes | chromosomes that determine biological sex (X and Y) |
| XX | female sex chromosome combination |
| XY | male sex chromosome combination; not fully homologous |
| Gametes | reproductive cells such as sperm and egg |
| Haploid (n) | cell containing one set of chromosomes |
| Diploid (2n) | cell containing two sets of chromosomes |
| Somatic cells | body cells that are not reproductive cells |
| Meiosis | type of cell division that produces haploid gametes from diploid cells |
| Fertilization | fusion of a haploid sperm and haploid egg to form a diploid zygote |
| Zygote | fertilized egg; first diploid cell of a new organism |
| Meiosis I | first division of meiosis that separates homologous chromosome pairs |
| Meiosis II | second division of meiosis that separates sister chromatids |
| Sister chromatids | identical copies of a chromosome attached at the centromere |
| Independent assortment | random alignment of homologous chromosome pairs during Metaphase I, increasing genetic variation |
| Crossing over | exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids during Prophase I |
| Non-sister chromatids | chromatids from homologous chromosomes that are not identical copies |
| Genetic variation | differences in DNA combinations among individuals |
| Random fertilization | random combination of genetically unique sperm and egg |
| Nondisjunction | failure of chromosomes or chromatids to separate correctly during meiosis |
| Karyotype | organized display of chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs |
| Trisomy | condition in which an individual has an extra chromosome |
| Monosomy | condition in which an individual is missing a chromosome |
| Down syndrome | genetic disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21 |
| Klinefelter syndrome | condition caused by an extra X chromosome in males |
| Turner syndrome | condition in which a female has only one X chromosome |
| Trisomy X | condition in which a female has three X chromosomes |
| Deletion | loss of a chromosome segment |
| Duplication | repetition of a chromosome segment |
| Inversion | reversal of a chromosome segment |
| Translocation | attachment of a chromosome segment to a nonhomologous chromosome |
| Asexual reproduction | reproduction involving one parent and genetically identical offspring |
| Sexual reproduction | reproduction involving two parents and genetically unique offspring |
| Mitosis | cell division that produces two genetically identical diploid cells |
| Interphase | stage when DNA is replicated before cell division |
| Metaphase I | stage of meiosis where homologous pairs line up independently at the equator |
| Prophase I | stage of meiosis when crossing over occurs |
| Anaphase I | stage of meiosis when homologous chromosomes separate |
| Anaphase II | stage of meiosis when sister chromatids separate |
| Genetically identical | having the exact same DNA |
| Genetically unique | having different DNA combinations |
| Sexual reproduction advantage | increases genetic variation and adaptability in changing environments |
| Asexual reproduction advantage | allows rapid reproduction without needing a mate |
| APPLICATION-LEVEL FLASHCARDS Why does meiosis reduce chromosome number from diploid to haploid? | so fertilization can restore the diploid chromosome number instead of doubling it every generation |
| A human body cell has 46 chromosomes. How many chromosomes would a sperm cell contain? | 23 chromosomes |
| If nondisjunction occurs during meiosis, what can happen to the offspring? | the zygote may have too many or too few chromosomes, causing genetic disorders |
| During which stage does crossing over occur, and why is it important? | Prophase I; it increases genetic variation by exchanging DNA between homologous chromosomes |
| Why are offspring from sexual reproduction genetically different from their parents? | because of independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization |
| A scientist finds a cell with 23 chromosomes. Is the cell most likely haploid or diploid? | haploid because it contains one set of chromosomes |
| What is the major difference between Meiosis I and Meiosis II? | Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids |
| Why are males considered to have nonhomologous sex chromosomes? | because the X and Y chromosomes do not contain all the same genes |
| What would happen if meiosis did not occur before fertilization? | chromosome numbers would double every generation |
| Why does mitosis produce genetically identical cells? | because DNA is copied exactly and sister chromatids separate evenly |
| Why is independent assortment important for evolution? | it creates genetic diversity that allows populations to adapt |
| A zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo. Which process is occurring? | mitosis |
| If a chromosome segment flips around backward, what type of mutation occurred? | inversion |
| Why are deletions usually more harmful than inversions? | deletions remove genes completely while inversions usually keep all genes present |
| How many daughter cells are produced by meiosis? | four haploid daughter cells |
| How many daughter cells are produced by mitosis? | two diploid daughter cells |
| A cell goes through division once and produces identical cells. Was it mitosis or meiosis? | mitosis |
| A cell goes through division twice and produces unique cells. Was it mitosis or meiosis? | meiosis |
| Why is meiosis necessary for sexual reproduction? | it creates haploid gametes needed for fertilization |
| What is the relationship between meiosis and fertilization? | meiosis creates haploid gametes and fertilization combines them to restore diploid chromosome number |
| If crossing over did not occur, how would genetic variation change? | genetic variation would decrease |
| What is one advantage of asexual reproduction? | organisms can reproduce quickly without finding a mate |
| What is one advantage of sexual reproduction? | offspring have more genetic diversity and better survival potential |
| Why are gametes genetically unique? | because of crossing over and independent assortment during meiosis |
| A karyotype shows three copies of chromosome 21. What disorder does the person most likely have? | Down syndrome |
| What process causes homologous chromosomes to separate? | Meiosis I |
| What process causes sister chromatids to separate during meiosis? | Meiosis II |
| Why is random fertilization important? | any sperm can fertilize any egg, creating many possible genetic combinations |
| How many genetically different gametes can humans produce through independent assortment alone? | 2^23 combinations |
| Why is mitosis important in multicellular organisms? | it allows growth, repair, and replacement of cells |
| A student says meiosis creates identical cells. Why is this incorrect? | meiosis creates genetically unique haploid cells due to crossing over and independent assortment |
| Which type of reproduction produces clones? | asexual reproduction |
| Why are homologous chromosomes important in meiosis? | they pair up and separate to ensure each gamete gets one chromosome from each pair |
| Gene | a small section of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein |
| Allele | different versions of the same gene |
| Genotype | the combination of alleles an organism possesses |
| Phenotype | the observable physical characteristics of an organism |
| Dominant allele | an allele that is expressed whenever it is present |
| Recessive allele | an allele that is only expressed when two recessive alleles are present |
| Homozygous | having two identical alleles for a trait |
| Heterozygous | having two different alleles for a trait |
| Monohybrid cross | a genetic cross involving one trait |
| P generation | the parental generation in a genetic cross |
| F1 generation | the first generation of offspring from the parental cross |
| F2 generation | the offspring produced by crossing members of the F1 generation |
| Law of Segregation | alleles separate during gamete formation so each gamete receives one allele |
| Dihybrid cross | a genetic cross involving two traits |
| Law of Independent Assortment | alleles for different traits separate independently during gamete formation |
| Codominance | both alleles are fully expressed in the phenotype |
| Incomplete dominance | the heterozygous phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes |
| Multiple alleles | a gene with more than two possible alleles in a population |
| Polygenic inheritance | a trait controlled by multiple genes |
| Lethal allele | an allele that causes death in individuals carrying it |
| Sex-linked trait | a trait controlled by a gene located on a sex chromosome |
| Carrier | an individual who has a recessive allele but does not express the trait |
| X-linked trait | a trait controlled by a gene on the X chromosome |
| Why were all F1 offspring purple in Mendel’s first experiment? | Purple is dominant over white |
| What was the genotype of the F1 plants in Mendel’s monohybrid cross? | Heterozygous |
| What phenotypic ratio did Mendel observe in the F2 generation of a monohybrid cross? | 3 purple : 1 white |
| What genotypic ratio results from a heterozygous monohybrid cross? | 1 homozygous dominant : 2 heterozygous : 1 homozygous recessive |
| What did Mendel conclude from the monohybrid cross? | The Law of Segregation |
| During what process does the Law of Segregation occur? | Meiosis |
| What phenotypic ratio results from a dihybrid cross between two heterozygotes? | 9:3:3:1 |
| What did Mendel conclude from the dihybrid cross? | The Law of Independent Assortment |
| During which stage of meiosis is Independent Assortment demonstrated? | Metaphase I |
| Why do males express X-linked recessive traits more often than females? | Males have only one X chromosome |
| Can females be carriers of X-linked traits? | Yes because they have two X chromosomes |
| Can males be carriers of X-linked traits? | No they either have the trait or they do not |
| What is the difference between genotype and phenotype? | Genotype is the allele combination; phenotype is the physical expression |
| What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous? | Homozygous has identical alleles; heterozygous has different alleles |
| What is the difference between dominant and recessive alleles? | Dominant alleles are expressed whenever present; recessive alleles require two copies |
| What is the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance? | Codominance expresses both traits; incomplete dominance produces a blended phenotype |
| What is an example of codominance? | Human AB blood type |
| What is an example of incomplete dominance? | Red flower crossed with white flower producing pink flowers |
| Why can a population have multiple alleles but an individual only has two? | Individuals inherit one allele from each parent |
| What type of inheritance controls skin color and height? | Polygenic inheritance |
| Why are polygenic traits highly variable? | Multiple genes contribute to the phenotype |
| What is the purpose of a Punnett square? | To predict possible offspring genotypes and phenotypes |
| If T is dominant and t is recessive, what is the genotype of a homozygous dominant individual? | TT |
| If T is dominant and t is recessive, what is the genotype of a heterozygous individual? | Tt |
| If T is dominant and t is recessive, what is the genotype of a homozygous recessive individual? | tt |
| In a Tt × Tt cross, what percentage of offspring are homozygous recessive? | 25% |
| In a Tt × Tt cross, what percentage of offspring show the dominant phenotype? | 75% |
| In a Tt × tt cross, what percentage of offspring show the recessive phenotype? | 50% |
| Why are Mendel’s laws important? | They explain how traits are inherited from parents to offspring |
| What chromosome combination produces a female? | XX |
| What chromosome combination produces a male? | XY |
| Which parent determines the sex of offspring? | The father |
| Why does a male inherit his X chromosome from his mother? | Fathers pass a Y chromosome to sons |
| What happens when a lethal allele is inherited? | It causes death during development or later in life |
| What are gametes? | Reproductive cells containing one allele for each gene |
| How many alleles for a trait does each gamete contain? | One |
| What causes variation among offspring? | Independent assortment segregation and fertilization |
Created by:
katdolan