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Chapter 2 Psych
For Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| nervous system | the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry. The field that studies the nervous system is called neuroscience, and the people who study it are neuroscientists. |
| One cubic centimeter of brain holds how many nerve cells? | 50 million nerve cells. That’s about the size of a snack cube of cheese |
| Several extraordinary characteristics allow the nervous system to direct our behavior: (4 of them) | complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission. |
| Complexity | Right now, your brain is carrying out a multitude of tasks, including seeing, reading, learning, and breathing. Extensive assemblies of nerve cells participate in each of these activities, all at once. |
| Integration | The brain is the “great integrator” meaning that the brain does a wonderful job of pulling information together. Sounds, sights, touch, taste, smells—the brain integrates all of these as we function in the world. |
| Adaptability | Although nerve cells reside in certain brain regions, they are not fixed, unchanging structures. They have a hereditary, biological foundation, but they are constantly adapting to changes in the body and the environment. |
| plasticity | denotes the brain’s special capacity for change. You might believe that thinking is a mental process, not a physical one. Yet thinking is a physical event, because your every thought is reflected in physical activity in the brain. |
| Electrochemical Transmission | The brain and the rest of the nervous system work as an information-processing system When an impulse travels down a neuron it does so electrically. When that impulse gets to the end of the line, it communicates with the next neuron using chemicals |
| Afferent nerves, or sensory nerves | carry information to the brain and spinal cord. These sensory pathways communicate information about the external environment and internal body processes from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. |
| Efferent nerves, or motor nerves | carry information out of the brain and spinal cord—that is, they carry the nervous system’s output. These motor pathways communicate information from the brain and spinal cord to other areas of the body, including muscles and glands |
| neural networks | interconnected groups of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord. More than 99 percent of all our nerve cells are located in the CNS. |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. |
| The peripheral nervous system has two major divisions: | the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system |
| somatic nervous system | consists of sensory nerves (afferent), whose function is to convey information from the skin and muscles to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature, and motor nerves (efferent), whose function is to tell muscles what to do |
| autonomic nervous system | take messages to and from the body’s internal organs, monitoring such processes as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. |
| The autonomic nervous system is also divided into two parts: | The sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system |
| sympathetic nervous system | arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress |
| parasympathetic nervous system | calms the body |
| Stress | the body’s response to stressors |
| stressors | the circumstances and events that threaten people and tax their coping abilities. When we experience stress, our body readies itself to handle the assault of stress; a number of physiological changes take place. |
| Acute stress | the momentary stress that occurs in response to life experiences. When the stressful situation ends, so does acute stress |
| corticosteroids | powerful stress hormones |
| Chronic stress | stress that goes on continuously—may lead to persistent autonomic nervous system arousal. |
| Neurons | the nerve cells that handle the information-processing function. |
| The human brain contains about ________ neurons. | 100 billion |
| The average neuron is a complex structure with as many as ______ physical connections with other cells. | 10,000 |
| mirror neurons | Mirror neurons seem to play a role in imitation and are activated when we perform an action but also when we watch someone else perform that same task. In addition to imitation, these neurons may play a role in empathy and in our understanding of others. |
| Glial cells (or glia) | provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions in the nervous system. |
| most common cells in the nervous system (Think in general, not specific) | Glial cells. For every neuron there are about 10 glial cells. They have many functions. Glial cells keep neurons running smoothly. These cells are not specialized to process information in the same way as neurons |
| cell body (of neurons) | contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance. |
| Dendrites | treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, receive information and orient it toward the neuron’s cell body. Most nerve cells have numerous dendrites, which increase their surface area, allowing each neuron to receive input from many other neurons |
| axon | part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells. Although extremely thin, axons can be very long, with many branches. Some extend more than 3 feet—from the top of the brain to the base of the spinal cord. |
| myelin sheath | consisting of a layer of cells containing fat, encases and insulates most axons. By insulating axons, myelin sheaths speed up transmission of nerve impulses. Glial cells provide myelination |
| ion channels | allow movement of ions in and out of the cell, some gated |
| resting (neuron) | not transmitting information, the ion channels are closed, and a slight negative charge is present along the inside of the cell membrane. On the outside of the cell membrane, the charge is positive |
| polarized (neuron) | mostly negatively charged ions on the inside of the cell and most positively charged ions on the outside |
| resting potential | polarization creates a voltage between the inside and the outside of the axon wall (Figure 3). That voltage, called the neuron’s resting potential, is between -60 and -75 millivolts (A millivolt is 1/1,000 of a volt.) |
| depolarizing | started by raising from resting potential to threshold, opening Sodium gated channels |
| action potential | brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon |
| all-or-nothing principle | The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity. |
| threshold | Once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity, it fires. Can be compared to the burning fuse of a firecracker. Once the fuse has been lit, the spark travels quickly and with the same intensity down the fuse. |
| Synapses | tiny spaces between neurons |
| synaptic gap | the gap between neurons |
| terminal buttons | Each axon branches out into numerous fibers that end in structures called terminal buttons, the things that look like buttons at the end of the axon terminal |
| neurotransmitters | Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the neuron’s terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron |
| reuptake | After delivering its message, some of the neurotransmitter is used up in the production of energy, and some of it is reabsorbed by the axon that released it to await the next neural impulse. This reabsorption is termed reuptake |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | usually stimulates the firing of neurons and is involved in the action of muscles, learning, and memory. ACh is found throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. |
| GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) | found throughout the CNS. Believed to be in as many as 1/3 of the brain’s synapses. GABA keeps many neurons from firing. In this way, it helps to control the precision of the signal being carried from one neuron to the next. |
| Glutamate | key role in exciting many neurons to fire and is especially involved in learning and memory. |
| Norepinephrine | inhibits the firing of neurons in the central nervous system, but it excites the heart muscle, intestines, and urogenital tract. Stress stimulates the release of norepinephrine. This neurotransmitter also helps to control alertness. |
| Dopamine | helps to control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize rewards and other important signals in the environment |
| Serotonin | involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning. In regulating states of sleep and wakefulness, it teams with acetylcholine and norepinephrine. Serotonin is also a key to maintaining the brain’s neuroplasticity |
| Endorphins | natural opiates that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons. Endorphins shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure. A long-distance runner, a person giving birth, and someone in shock all have elevated levels of endorphins |
| Oxytocin | a hormone and neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the experience of love and social bonding |
| agonist | A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter’s effects by binding to a neurotransmitter’s receptors. |
| antagonist | A drug that blocks a neurotransmitter’s effects |
| Brain lesioning | an abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain resulting from injury or disease. |
| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) (brain lesioning type) | TMS uses a rapidly changing magnetic field to induce brief electric current pulses in the brain, and these pulses trigger action potentials in neurons. Immediately following this burst of action potentials, activity in the targeted brain area is inhibited |
| virtual lesion. | Immediately following this burst of action potentials, activity in the targeted brain area is inhibited, causing what is known as a virtual lesion. (Artificial burst of action potentials) |
| electroencephalograph (EEG) | records the brain’s electrical activity. Electrodes placed on the scalp detect brain-wave activity, which is recorded on a chart known as an electroencephalogram |
| prefrontal asymmetry | relatively more left than right prefrontal activity |
| single-unit recording | provides information about a single neuron’s electrical activity, a thin probe is inserted in or near an individual neuron. The probe transmits that neuron’s electrical activity to an amplifier so that researchers can “see” the activity. |
| computer axial tomography (CAT scan or CT scan) | produces a three-dimensional image obtained from X-rays of the head that are assembled into a composite image by a computer. The CT scan provides valuable information about the location and extent of damage |
| Positron-emission tomography (PET scan) | based on metabolic changes in the brain related to activity. PET measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain. Neurons use glucose for energy. Tracing the amounts of glucose generates a picture of activity levels throughout the brain. |
| magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | creating a magnetic field around a person’s body and using radio waves to construct images of the person’s tissues and biochemical activities. |
| functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) | allows scientists to see what is happening in the brain. fMRI rests on the idea that mental activity is associated with changes in the brain. While PET is about glucose, fMRI exploits changes in blood oxygen that occur in association with brain activity. |
| hindbrain | located at the skull’s rear, is the lowest portion of the brain. The three main parts of the hindbrain are the medulla, cerebellum, and pons |
| medulla | begins where the spinal cord enters the skull. This structure controls many vital functions, such as breathing and heart rate. It also regulates our reflexes. |
| cerebellum | extends from the rear of the hindbrain, just above the medulla. It consists of two rounded structures thought to play important roles in motor coordination |
| pons | bridge in the hindbrain that connects the cerebellum and the brain stem. It contains several clusters of fibers involved in sleep and arousal |
| brain stem | includes much of the hindbrain and midbrain. Connects with the spinal cord and extends to encase the reticular formation. Cells in the brain stem determine alertness and regulate basic survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure |
| midbrain | Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears. |
| reticular formation | A system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise. |
| the midbrain is home to the substantia nigra | produces the neurotransmitter, dopamine, and the ventral tegmental area |
| ventral tegmental area | part of the brain’s reward system |
| forebrain | The brain’s largest division and its most forward part |
| The limbic system | A network of structures under the cerebral cortex. A set of subcortical brain structures central to emotion, memory, and reward processing. Memory and emotion |
| The thalamus | The forebrain structure that sits at the top of the brain stem in the brain’s central core and serves as an important relay station. |
| The basal ganglia | Large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements. |
| The hypothalamus | A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities—eating, drinking, and sexual behavior—as well as emotion, stress, and reward. |
| The cerebral cortex | The outer layer of the brain |
| amygdala | An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism’s survival, such as appropriate food, mates, and social rivals. |
| hippocampus | The structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories. |
| cerebral cortex | Part of the forebrain, the outer layer of the brain, responsible for the most complex mental functions, such as thinking and planning. |
| neocortex | The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the human brain’s cortex |
| The wrinkled surface of the cerebral cortex is divided into two halves called | hemispheres |
| Each hemisphere is subdivided into four regions, or | lobes—occipital, temporal, frontal, and parietal |
| occipital lobes | Structures located at the back of the head that respond to visual stimuli. |
| temporal lobes | Structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing, and memory. Have a number of connections to the limbic system |
| frontal lobes | The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles. |
| prefrontal cortex | An important part of the frontal lobes that is involved in higher cognitive functions such as planning, reasoning, and self-control. |
| parietal lobes | Structures at the top and toward the rear of the head that are involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control. |
| somatosensory cortex | A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about body sensations, located at the front of the parietal lobes. |
| motor cortex | A region in the cerebral cortex, located just behind the frontal lobes, that processes information about voluntary movement |
| association cortex | Sometimes called association areas, the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving. |
| Broca’s area | located in the brain’s left hemisphere, and it is involved in the control of speech. Individuals with damage to Broca’s area have problems saying words correctly. |
| Wernicke’s area | the portion of the left hemisphere that is involved in understanding language. Individuals with damage to this area cannot comprehend words; they hear the words but do not know what they mean. |
| corpus callosum | The large bundle of axons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides. |
| Left hemisphere | Speech and grammar are localized to the left hemisphere |
| Right hemisphere | The right hemisphere dominates in processing nonverbal information such as spatial perception, visual recognition, and emotion. |
| endocrine system | The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream. |
| glands | Organs or tissues in the body that create chemicals that control many bodily functions. |
| hormones | Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body |
| pituitary gland | A pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands |
| master gland | The anterior (front) part of the pituitary is known as the master gland because almost all of its hormones direct the activity of target glands elsewhere. In turn, the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. |
| adrenal glands | Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress. |
| difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine | norepinephrine functions as a neurotransmitter when released from a neuron, while norepinephrine is released as a hormone by the adrenal glands |
| pancreas | A dual-purpose gland under the stomach that performs both digestive and endocrine functions |
| What part of the pancreas makes hormones such as insulin? | the islets of Langerhans |
| ovaries | Sex-related endocrine glands that produce hormones involved in sexual development and reproduction |
| testes | Sex-related endocrine glands in the scrotum that produce hormones involved in sexual development and reproduction. |
| who would a severe insult affect more, a young child an adult? | A young child, though their brains are more plastic, insults hurt their brains more. |
| Collateral sprouting | the axons of some healthy neurons adjacent to damaged cells grow new branches |
| Substitution of function | the damaged region’s function is taken over by another area or areas of the brain |
| Neurogenesis | the process by which new neurons are generated. It is now accepted that neurogenesis can occur in humans. However, to date, the presence of new neurons has been documented only in the hippocampus, the brain structure that is deeply involved in memory |
| brain grafts | implants of healthy tissue into damaged brains |
| stem cells | Unique primitive cells that have the capacity to develop into most types of human cells |
| chromosomes | In the human cell, threadlike structures that come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair originating from each parent, and that contain DNA. |
| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | A complex molecule in the cell’s chromosomes that carries genetic information. |
| genes | The units of hereditary information, consisting of short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA. |
| genome | refers to an organism’s complete genetic material |
| dominant-recessive genes principle | The principle that if one gene of a pair is dominant and one is recessive, the dominant gene overrides the recessive gene. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if both genes of a pair are recessive. |
| polygenic inheritance | the influences of multiple genes on behavior |
| gene-gene interaction | used to describe the ways two or more genes combine to influence characteristics, behavior, diseases, and development |
| molecular genetics | involves identifying specific genes associated with observable characteristics of organisms and devising ways to manipulate genes using technology. Foundation for treatments that involve editing, replacing, or disrupting genes responsible for diseases |
| Selective breeding | genetic method in which organisms are chosen for reproduction based on how much of a particular trait they display. |
| genome-wide association method | means that researchers take all of the information they can from people’s genes and probe for genetic variations linked to a particular disease, such as cancer, psychological disorders, or Alzheimer disease |
| linkage analysis | Genes that are close to one another in our DNA are more likely to be inherited together. This analysis may help identify the location of certain genes by referring to those genes whose position is already known |
| Behavior genetics | the study of the degree and nature of heredity’s influence on behavior. |
| genotype | An individual’s genetic heritage; their actual genetic material. |
| phenotype | An individual’s observable characteristics. |
| genetic expression | The activity of genes |
| gene × environment (g × e) interaction | The interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a specific measured aspect of the environment. |
| risk factor | Characteristics, experiences, or exposures that increase the likelihood that a person will develop a disorder or disease |
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JoshuaB5