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Biological Div 3-4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What shape are bacilli? | Rod-shaped |
| What shape are cocci? | Sphere-shaped |
| What shape are spirilli? | Spiral-shaped |
| What does the prefix "strepto-" indicate? | Linear chains (e.g., streptococcus) |
| What does the prefix "staphyl-" indicate? | Clusters (e.g., staphylococcus) |
| What are the three important types of Archaea? | Methanogens, Thermophiles, Halophiles |
| What are methanogens and where are they found? | Obligate anaerobes that produce methane (CH₄); found in the GI tract of humans/cows, mud, and swamps |
| What are thermophiles and why are they medically/scientifically important? | Heat-loving Archaea found in hot springs and volcanoes; their heat-resistant enzymes are ideal for PCR DNA replication (e.g., Taq polymerase) |
| What are halophiles? | Salt-loving Archaea found in environments with high salt concentration |
| What are the four types of animal-like protists? | Amoebas, Flagellates, Ciliates, Sporozoans |
| How do amoebas move and capture food? | Using pseudopodia |
| What are pseudopodia? | Transient cytoplasmic projections that emerge toward the direction of movement |
| What feeding process do amoebas perform? | Phagocytosis |
| How do flagellates move, and what is an example? | Using flagella; example is T. vaginalis |
| How do ciliates move, and what is an example? | Using cilia; example is Paramecium |
| How do ciliates acquire genetic variation and reproduce? | Genetic variation via conjugation; reproduce via binary fission |
| What are the characteristics of sporozoans? | Gliding movement, parasitic, reproduce using spores |
| What is Plasmodium and why is it significant? | A sporozoan parasite transmitted by mosquitoes that causes malaria in humans |
| What are the four types of algae? | Green algae (Chlorophyta), Red algae, Brown algae, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) |
| What kingdom(s) does green algae belong to, where is it found, and what is its evolutionary significance? | Kingdom Plantae or Protista; found in freshwater habitats; evolutionary ancestor to terrestrial plants; contains chlorophyll |
| What are the characteristics of red algae? | Kingdom Plantae or Protista; mostly multicellular; found in marine habitats |
| What are the characteristics of brown algae? | Kingdom Protista; multicellular; found in marine habitats (e.g., seaweeds, kelp) |
| What are the characteristics of cyanobacteria? | Kingdom Bacteria (Gram-negative); contain chlorophyll; precursor to chloroplasts according to endosymbiotic theory |
| What are thallophytes? | The simplest form of plant with no specialized vascular system; aquatic |
| What are bryophytes and what is their dominant life stage? | Plants found in aquatic and land habitats with a dominant gametophyte stage (haploid-n); e.g., mosses, liverworts, hornworts |
| What are tracheophytes and what is their dominant life stage? | Plants that grow vertically and tall with a dominant sporophyte stage (diploid-2n); e.g., ferns and pine trees |
| What are the key characteristics of angiosperms? | Undergo double fertilization; most diverse land-based plants; non-flagellated male gametes; produce flowers and pollen; bear seeds in fruits |
| What are the characteristics of monocots? | One cotyledon, parallel veins, scattered vascular bundles, fibrous root system, flower parts in multiples of 3 (e.g., lilies, Kentucky bluegrass) |
| What are the characteristics of dicots? | Two cotyledons, net-like veins, ringed vascular bundles, large single taproot, flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5 (e.g., oak trees) |
| What is a cotyledon? | Tissue involved in nutrient storage during the embryonic stage of a plant |
| What happens during meiosis in the ovary (female)? | Megasporocytes (megaspore mother cells, 2n) are converted into four megaspores (n) via meiosis |
| What are synergid cells? | Two cells that flank the egg cell and help attract/guide the pollen tube to the female gametophyte |
| What are antipodal cells? | Cells in the female gametophyte with unknown function |
| What happens during meiosis within the anther? | Microsporocytes (2n) → four microspores (n) via meiosis |
| What does the male gametophyte (pollen grain) contain? | A generative cell (forms into two sperm) and a tube cell (forms into the pollen tube) |
| What is double fertilization? | One male gamete (n) fuses with the female egg (n) to form an embryo/zygote (2n), AND another male gamete fuses with polar nuclei to form endosperm (3n) |
| What is the seed coat? | The tough outer covering of a seed that protects the embryo/seed content |
| What is endosperm? | The primary storage tissue in angiosperm seeds |
| What are cotyledons' role in seed structure? | Transfer nutrients from endosperm to embryo |
| What are the characteristics of the embryo within a seed? | Diploid; developed from the fertilized egg |
| What is dermal tissue? | Epidermal cells covering the outside of plant parts; secrete a waxy protective substance (cuticle) in aerial portions; contain guard cells to help control gas exchange |
| What is ground tissue responsible for? | Most of the metabolic functions of the plant |
| What does xylem do? | Conducts water and minerals throughout the plant and provides mechanical support |
| What are the two types of xylem cells? | Tracheids (long and tapered; water passes laterally through pits) and vessel elements (short and wide; perforations allow H₂O to pass between elements) |
| What does phloem do? | Transports sugar throughout the plant; made up of cells called sieve-tube members |
| What is the function of the epidermis in a leaf? | Protective layer covered with cuticle to reduce transpiration (water loss through evaporation) |
| What is the palisade mesophyll? | Layer with cells containing chloroplasts; the primary site for leaf photosynthesis |
| What is the spongy mesophyll? | Layer with intracellular spaces that allow for gas travel |
| What are stomata? | Microscopic pores in the epidermis that allow for gas exchange between the plant and the external environment |
| What happens when stomata are open vs. closed? | Open: CO₂ enters and photosynthesis can occur, but there is risk of desiccation from transpiration. Closed: water loss is minimized, but CO₂ cannot enter, preventing the Calvin Cycle |
| What are guard cells? | Specialized epidermal cells that control the opening of stomata and permit gas exchange |
| What are vascular bundles composed of? | Xylem and phloem, surrounded by a bundle sheath cell |
| What does auxin do? | Influences the plant's response to light and gravity to stimulate growth/elongation |
| What do gibberellins do? | Promote flower and stem elongation |
| What do cytokinins do? | Stimulate cytokinesis (cell division) |
| What does abscisic acid do? | Inhibits growth and promotes seed dormancy |
| What does ethylene gas do? | Promotes fruit ripening, flower production, and leaf abscission |
| What is phototropism? | Bending of a plant in response to light |
| What is gravitropism? | Bending of a plant in response to gravity |
| What is thigmotropism? | Growth response to mechanical stimuli |
| What is primary growth in plants? | Increases the length of the plant |
| What is secondary growth in plants? | Increases the girth of the plant |
| What is photoperiodism? | A plant's response to changes in the length of day and night (photoperiod) |
| What are short-day plants? | Plants that flower when sunlight is less than half the day |
| What are long-day plants? | Plants that flower when sunlight is more than half the day |
| Are viruses living or non-living? | Non-living; they cannot reproduce or undergo metabolic activities independently |
| What are the two main examples of viruses covered? | Bacteriophages and retroviruses |
| What are retroviruses? | RNA viruses that use reverse transcriptase to create double-stranded DNA transcripts from a single-stranded RNA genome |
| What are the components of a virus? | Nucleic acid (viral genome), capsid, and (in some) a viral envelope |
| What is a capsid? | A protein coat enclosing and protecting the viral nucleic acid |
| What is a viral envelope? | An outer membrane layer composed of host cell membranes, other membrane proteins, and viral glycoproteins; formed from the infected host's plasma membrane during the release phase |
| What is a prophage? | Viral genome integrated into a bacterial genome |
| What is a provirus? | Viral genome integrated into a eukaryotic genome |
| What are the additional structures unique to bacteriophages? | Sheath (helps eject viral DNA into host) and tail fibers (help with recognition and attachment) |
| What are the six steps of the viral life cycle? | 1) Attachment, 2) Entry, 3) Uncoating, 4) Synthesis/Replication, 5) Self-assembly, 6) Release |
| What is the attachment step? | Binding between the host cell and specific viral surface proteins; a virus has host ranges (set of species it can infect) |
| What is the entry step? | Bacteriophages inject genome into bacterial host using a protein tail; enveloped viruses fuse with the host membrane; others enter via endocytosis |
| What is uncoating? | Once inside the host, the viral genome is exposed via breakdown of the viral capsid |
| What is the synthesis/replication step? | The virus replicates its genome and viral proteins using the host's nucleotides, enzymes, and ribosomes |
| What are virions? | Newly assembled, complete viral particles formed during self-assembly |
| What is the release step? | Viral shedding allows newly replicated viral particles to leave the host via budding, apoptosis, or exocytosis |
| What is the lytic cycle? | An active process where a bacteriophage infects and injects its genome into a host cell, replicates into new viruses, and destroys the host cell when it bursts |
| What is the lysogenic cycle? | A passive process where the bacteriophage integrates into the host genome without actively creating new viral particles; the viral genome replicates every time the host cell replicates and may later be triggered into the lytic cycle |
| What is an acute viral infection? | Rapid onset of symptoms and virion replication; brief and resolved in days |
| What is a chronic viral infection? | Initial period of high viral load reduced to low once the immune system controls infection; lasts several years to a lifetime |
| What is a latent viral infection? | Intermittent phases of high and low viral loads after initial acute phase; lasts years to a lifetime |
| What is a slow-progressing viral infection? | Seems dormant after initial viral load but progresses (resumes viral replication) years later |
| How can viruses contribute to cancer? | By disrupting host genes involved in cell replication through injection/integration of the viral genome |
| What is the difference between an epidemic and a pandemic? | Epidemic affects a large population; pandemic has global impact |
| What are vaccines? | Weakened agents that mimic a disease-causing organism to stimulate the immune system |
| What is antigenic shift? | When viruses mix genes to increase host ranges; difficult to treat |
| What is antigenic drift? | Minor changes in viruses that allow for infection of the same host species |
| What are the three bacterial defenses against viruses? | 1) Cell surface mutations that prevent phages from identifying bacterial surface proteins; 2) Restriction enzymes that cut phage DNA at specific recognized sequences; 3) CRISPR-Cas system |
| What is the CRISPR-Cas system? | An internal bacterial defense that recognizes and cuts out viral genomes; also used in biotechnology for genome editing |
| What are prions? | Infectious misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to misfold into the prion form |
| What are viroids? | Single-stranded RNA molecules that infect plants |
| What is step 1 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Meiosis in Ovary (Female) — Megasporocytes (megaspore mother cells, 2n) are converted into four megaspores (n) via meiosis |
| What is step 2 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Mitotic Divisions Produce Female Gametophyte — One surviving megaspore (n) undergoes mitosis to produce the egg cell and polar nuclei; also produces synergid cells (guide pollen tube) and antipodal cells (unknown function) |
| What is step 3 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Meiosis Within Anther (Male) — Microsporocytes (2n) → four microspores (n) via meiosis |
| What is step 4 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Mitotic Divisions Produce Male Gametophyte - Microspore undergoes mitosis producing the pollen grain (n), which contains a generative cell (forms into two sperm) and a tube cell (forms into pollen tube) |
| What is step 5 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Pollen Tube Elongates Through the Style — Upon reaching the ovule, two sperm are discharged |
| What is step 6 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Double Fertilization Occurs — One sperm (n) + egg (n) → embryo/zygote (2n); second sperm + polar nuclei → endosperm (3n) |
| What is step 7 of the angiosperm lifecycle? | Zygote Develops into Embryo |
| What is Animalia? | Kingdom of eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that form 2-3 tissue layers during embryonic development. Most are motile at some point in their life cycle. |
| What are the major phyla of Animalia? | Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Rotifera, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata. |
| What criteria differentiate Animalia phyla? | Body symmetry, segmentation, tissues, germ layers, coelom, embryonic development, and digestive/reproductive/respiratory/circulatory/excretory systems. |
| What is cephalization? | Concentration of the nervous system and sensory organs anteriorly. Found in most bilateral animals. |
| What is body segmentation? | Repeated body segments along the anterior-posterior axis allowing complex movement (e.g., insect head/thorax/abdomen). |
| What is the difference between Parazoa and Eumetazoa? | Parazoa lack true tissues (Porifera only). Eumetazoa have true tissues; includes all phyla except Porifera. |
| What are diploblasts vs. triploblasts? | Diploblasts: two germ layers, radially symmetric. Triploblasts: three germ layers; all bilateral animals are triploblastic. |
| What is a coelom? | Body cavity between mesoderm and endoderm; only triploblastic animals may have one. |
| What are the three coelom classifications? | Acoelomate (none), pseudocoelomate (not fully surrounded by mesoderm), coelomate (fully surrounded by mesoderm). |
| What is the difference between protostomes and deuterostomes? | Protostomes: blastopore → mouth. Deuterostomes: blastopore → anus. |
| What is the difference between a gastrovascular cavity and an alimentary canal? | Gastrovascular cavity: one opening, two-way digestion. Alimentary canal: separate openings, one-way digestion. |
| What are the four types of asexual reproduction? | Binary fission (prokaryotes only), budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis (unfertilized egg develops into organism). |
| What is the difference between monoecious and dioecious? | Monoecious: both sexes on one individual (hermaphroditism). Dioecious: separate male/female individuals. Most animals are dioecious. |
| What are the five respiratory structures in animals? | Spiracles/tracheal tubules (insects), book lungs (arachnids), gills (fish/crustaceans), lungs (vertebrates), diffusion (simple organisms). |
| What is the difference between closed and open circulatory systems? | Closed: blood in vessels, efficient gas exchange. Open: blood drains into hemocoel, inefficient. |
| What are the four excretory structures? | Protonephridia (flatworms), metanephridia (annelids), Malpighian tubules (insects/spiders), nephrons (vertebrates). |
| Key characteristics of Porifera? | Sessile, aquatic, asymmetrical, no true tissues (Parazoa). Suspension feeders; openings = ostia; characteristic choanocytes and spicules. |
| Key characteristics of Cnidaria? | Aquatic, radial symmetry, diploblastic, gastrovascular cavity. Cnidocytes with nematocysts. May alternate polyp/medusa forms. Examples: hydra, jellyfish, coral. |
| Key characteristics of Platyhelminthes? | Bilateral, triploblastic, acoelomate, protostome, gastrovascular cavity, protonephridia with flame cells. Hermaphroditic, parasitic or aquatic. Most primitive triploblastic animals. Tapeworms absorb nutrients directly. Examples: tapeworm, planarian. |
| Key characteristics of Nematoda? | Bilateral, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate, alimentary canal, diffusion only. Not segmented; longitudinal muscles only. Parasitic. Unique renette cells for osmoregulation. Examples: hookworm, C. elegans. |
| Key characteristics of Rotifera? | Bilateral, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate, alimentary canal. Not truly segmented. Sexual or parthenogenetic reproduction. Mostly freshwater; ciliated corona draws food in. |
| Key characteristics of Annelida? | Bilateral, triploblastic, coelomate, protostome, alimentary canal, closed circulatory system, nephridia, ventral nerve cord. Segmented with septa; longitudinal and circular muscles. Examples: earthworm, leech. |
| Key characteristics of Mollusca? | Bilateral, triploblastic, coelomate, protostome, mostly open circulatory system (cephalopods closed), nephridia. Visceral mass, mantle, radula, foot. Gastropods undergo torsion. Examples: snail, squid, clam. |
| Key characteristics of Arthropoda (Insecta)? | Chitin exoskeleton, three leg pairs, tagmata, spiracles/tracheal tubes, Malpighian tubules, open circulatory system. Undergo metamorphosis and ecdysis. Most species-rich phylum. Examples: ant, dragonfly. |
| Key characteristics of Arthropoda (Arachnida)? | Chitin exoskeleton, four leg pairs, book lungs or trachea, Malpighian tubules, open circulatory system. Terrestrial. Examples: spider, scorpion. |
| Key characteristics of Arthropoda (Crustacea)? | Chitin exoskeleton, jointed appendages, gills, Malpighian tubules, open circulatory system. Aquatic. Examples: lobster, crab. |
| Key characteristics of Echinodermata? | Bilateral as larvae, fivefold radial as adults. Triploblastic, coelomate, deuterostome, alimentary canal, diffusion only. Water vascular system, tube feet, spines. Closest major phyla to chordates. Examples: starfish, sea urchin. |
| What are the four defining features of chordates? | Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail. |
| What is the notochord? | Mesoderm-derived flexible rod that provides structural support; becomes the vertebral column in vertebrates. |
| What is the dorsal hollow nerve cord? | Develops into the brain and spinal cord (CNS). |
| What are pharyngeal slits? | Openings in the back of the mouth; become gills in fish, or the jaw and inner ear in terrestrial chordates. |
| What is the post-anal tail? | Posterior extension used for swimming in fish; present in embryos but absent in adulthood in some chordates (e.g., humans). |
| Invertebrate vs. vertebrate chordates? | Invertebrates lack a spine (lancelets, tunicates). Vertebrates have vertebrae, cranium, and a bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton. |
| What are the three modes of internal development? | Viviparity (live birth; mother nourishes), oviparity (external eggs; yolk nourishes), ovoviviparity (internal hatching; yolk nourishes). |
| Ectotherms vs. endotherms? | Ectotherms (cold-blooded): body temp set by environment. Endotherms (warm-blooded): regulate temp via metabolic heat; have fat, hair, or feathers. |
| Amniotes vs. anamniotes? | Amniotes have extraembryonic membranes (chorion, amnion, allantois) and waterproof eggs (birds, reptiles, mammals). Anamniotes lack these; aquatic eggs with only a vitelline membrane (amphibians, fish). |
| Key characteristics of Urochordata/Cephalochordata? | Marine invertebrates with all chordate features but no vertebrae. Tunicates are benthic filter feeders; notochord only as larvae. Lancelets keep notochord into adulthood. |
| Key characteristics of Agnatha? | Cartilaginous skeleton, no jaws, scaleless skin, keratinized mouth plates, two-chambered heart, gills. Notochord persists into adulthood. Hagfish have a skull but no vertebral column. Examples: hagfish, lamprey. |
| Key characteristics of Chondrichthyes? | Jaws and teeth, cartilaginous vertebrae, two-chambered heart, gills. Notochord only in embryo; replaced by vertebrae in adulthood. Examples: shark. |
| Key characteristics of Osteichthyes? | Bony skeleton, scales, two-chambered heart, gills. Examples: salmon, halibut. |
| Key characteristics of Amphibia? | No scales, cold-blooded, three-chambered heart. Gills as juveniles; lungs as adults. Aquatic larvae (tadpoles) undergo metamorphosis into terrestrial adults. Anamniotes. Examples: frog, toad, salamander. |
| Key characteristics of Mammalia — Monotremes? | Amniotes, warm-blooded, four-chambered heart. Lay leathery eggs; young suck milk from fur (no nipples). Examples: platypus, echidna. |
| Key characteristics of Mammalia — Marsupials? | Amniotes, warm-blooded, four-chambered heart. Short gestation; premature young develop in marsupium with prolonged lactation. Examples: kangaroo, opossum. |
| Key characteristics of Mammalia — Placental? | Amniotes, warm-blooded, four-chambered heart. Fetus supported by placenta. Examples: bat, whale, human. |
| Key characteristics of Reptilia? | Amniotes, cold-blooded, leathery eggs, internal fertilization, lungs, three-chambered heart (crocodiles: four). Examples: turtle, snake, crocodile. |
| Key characteristics of Birds (Aves)? | Amniotes, warm-blooded, four-chambered heart, lungs, shelled eggs, feathers (modified scales). Examples: eagle, blue jay. |
| What are the six groups of Plantae in order of complexity? | Thallophytes, Bryophytes, Pterophytes, Lycophytes, Gymnosperms (conifers), Angiosperms (flowering plants). |
| Which plant groups lack a vascular system? | Thallophytes and Bryophytes. |
| Which plant groups reproduce via spores rather than seeds? | Thallophytes, Bryophytes, Pterophytes, and Lycophytes. |
| Which plant groups have a dominant gametophyte (n) phase? | Thallophytes and Bryophytes. |
| Which plant groups have a dominant sporophyte (2n) phase? | Pterophytes, Lycophytes, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms. |
| Which is the only plant group that produces flowers? | Angiosperms. |
| What are the key characteristics of Pterophytes? | Vascular, seedless, flagellated sperm. Have fronds (modified leaves), sori (clusters of sporangia), and independent sporophyte and gametophyte forms. Examples: ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns. |
| What are the key characteristics of Lycophytes? | Vascular, seedless, dominant sporophyte. Have strobili — cone-like structures that produce clusters of spore-bearing sporangia. Examples: club moss, spike moss, quilworts. |
| What are the key characteristics of Gymnosperms? | Vascular, seed-bearing, dominant sporophyte, no flowers. Have naked seeds (no fruit). Examples: pine trees, fir trees. |
| What are the key characteristics of Angiosperms? | Vascular, seed-bearing, dominant sporophyte, produce flowers. Fruit encloses seeds. Perform double fertilization. Most abundant plant type. Examples: fruiting trees, wildflowers. |
| What are the four criteria used to classify plants? | Plant body (presence/absence of differentiated structures), vascular system (presence/absence of xylem and phloem), seeds (presence/absence of seed formation), and flowers (presence/absence). |
| What are tracheophytes? | Plants with differentiated structures and a vascular system (xylem and phloem) allowing vertical growth. Have a dominant sporophyte stage. Includes all plants except Thallophytes and Bryophytes. |
| What are the four features of Pterophytes? | Seedless, vascular, flagellated sperm, predominantly sporophyte. |
| What is the pistil? | The female reproductive structure; includes the stigma, style, and ovary. |
| What is the stigma? | The sticky tip of the pistil that receives pollen. |
| What is the style? | The stalk-like structure that connects the stigma to the ovary. |
| What is the ovary? | Structure at the base of the pistil that surrounds the ovules and eventually forms a fruit. |
| What are ovules? | Structures inside the ovary that eventually form seeds. |
| What is the stamen? | The male reproductive structure; includes the anther and filament. |
| What is the anther? | The tip of the stamen that produces pollen. |
| What is the filament? | The stalk-like structure that supports and elevates the anther. |
| What are petals? | Brightly colored modified leaves that attract pollinators. |
| What are sepals? | Modified leaves that enclose and protect developing flower buds; provide structural support after the flower has emerged. |
| What are hermaphroditic plants? | Plants that produce flowers with both male and female reproductive structures on the same flower. |
| What are monoecious plants? | Plants that produce both male and female flowers, but individual flowers do not contain both reproductive structures. |
| What are dioecious plants? | Plants that produce either male or female flowers, but not both, on the same individual. |
| What is a fruit? | A mature flower ovary that forms after fertilization to protect the seed and aid in its dispersal. Can be fleshy (e.g., berry) or dry (e.g., nut). |
| What are seeds? | Mature flower ovules containing the embryo and nutrients to support germination. |
| What is germination? | The process by which a seed or spore becomes active and develops into a new organism. |
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