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Development 26-27
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cross-sectional research design | A research method where data is collected from groups of people of varying ages at once to compare age groups without following them over time. |
| Longitudinal research design | A research method where the same group of participants is studied and tracked over an extended period of time to observe developmental changes. Problem are that participants may drop out over time and huge time/money required. |
| Stability vs change | A central developmental debate examining whether personality traits and behaviors remain consistent throughout life or alter significantly due to experiences and maturation. |
| Nature vs nurture | A foundational developmental debate concerning whether traits, behaviors, and development are primarily influenced by genetic inheritance or environmental factors like upbringing and experiences. |
| Continuous vs discontinuous stages | A debate analyzing whether human development occurs as a gradual, ongoing cumulative process (continuous) or through a series of distinct, separate stages characterized by sudden, qualitative leaps (discontinuous). |
| Prenatal Development | The entire physical and psychological growth process of an organism from the moment of conception until birth. |
| Teratogens | Environmental factors such as viruses, drugs, maternal illnesses, or chemicals that can pass through the placental barrier and cause harm or physical and psychological abnormalities to the developing organism during pregnancy. |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) | A neurodevelopmental disorder caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy, resulting in physical abnormalities, cognitive impairments, low birth weight, and behavioral problems. |
| Infant Reflexes | Involuntary, automatic motor responses present in healthy newborns triggered by specific sensory stimuli that indicate normal neural connections and development. |
| Maturation | The biological growth processes that enable orderly, sequential changes in behavior and abilities, which are relatively uninfluenced by experience. Dictates the sequence of development, not the timing. |
| Developmental Norms | The average ages at which children are expected to reach specific physical, cognitive, or social developmental milestones. |
| Fine motor coordination | The ability to make precise, small movements using the small muscles of the hands and fingers, such as writing, drawing, or buttoning a shirt. |
| Gross motor coordination | The ability to control large muscle groups for coordinated movements involving the whole body, such as crawling, walking, running, or jumping. |
| Schema | A mental framework or conceptual structure that individuals use to organize, interpret, and understand information and experiences. |
| Assimilation | The cognitive process of interpreting and fitting new experiences or information into existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones because new information does not fit into current mental frameworks. |
| Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development | A discontinuous four-stage theory (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational) proposing that children actively construct their understanding of the world as they biologically mature. |
| Sensorimotor Stage | Piaget's first stage (birth to roughly age 2) during which infants learn about the world through their sensory impressions and motor activities. |
| Object Permanence | The cognitive awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or perceived; a key milestone developed during the sensorimotor stage. |
| Preoperational Stage | Piaget's second stage (roughly ages 2 to 7) during which children become proficient in using language and mental symbols, but lack logical mental operations. |
| Mental symbols | Words, images, or marks used by a child to internally represent external objects, actions, and concepts, allowing for symbolic thought. |
| Pretend play | Imaginative play where children use symbolic thought to project roles and scenarios onto objects or situations, such as using a banana as a phone. |
| Animism | The preoperational child's belief that inanimate objects possess lifelike qualities, feelings, and intentions due to egocentric thinking. |
| Egocentrism | The cognitive inability of a preoperational child to take or understand another person's physical or mental perspective. |
| Theory of mind | The developmental milestone where a child recognizes that other people have their own internal thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and perspectives that differ from their own. |
| Concrete Operational Stage | Piaget's third stage (roughly ages 7 to 11) during which children gain the mental operations to think logically, realistically, and straightforwardly about concrete events, though they still struggle to think systematically about abstract concepts. |
| Conservation | The understanding that physical properties of an object (such as mass, volume, or number) remain identical despite changes in the object's superficial shape or appearance. |
| Reversibility | The logical understanding that actions, numbers, or sequences can be mentally reversed and returned to their original state. |
| Mathematical Transformations | The cognitive ability to recognize the inverse relationship between mathematical concepts, allowing a child to understand that 4 + 5 = 9 implies 9 - 5 = 4. |
| Formal Operational Stage | Piaget's final stage (beginning around age 12) characterized by the development of abstract, hypothetical, and systematic logical thinking. Piaget noted that not all adults fully achieve formal operational thinking. |
| Abstract Reasoning | The capacity to think deeply about complex concepts, ideas, and principles that lack concrete, physical reality (e.g., justice, honor). |
| Hypothetical Thinking | The ability to generate and reason through speculative "what-if" scenarios and deduce potential outcomes without relying on physical experience. |
| Systematic Thinking | The cognitive ability to systematically plan, isolate variables, and evaluate all potential combinations or factors when solving a problem. |
| Vygotski's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) | The structural range between what a learner can accomplish completely independently and what they can accomplish with guided assistance from a more knowledgeable peer or teacher. |
| Scaffold | The temporary, adjustable instructional support and guidance provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a student successfully master a task within their Zone of Proximal Development. |
| Self-Talk | The internal or external dialogue an individual uses to self-regulate, guide actions, and direct thinking while navigating a challenging cognitive task. |
| Separation Anxiety | The psychological distress, fear, or anxiety displayed by infants and young children when separated from their primary caregiver or introduced to a stranger. |
| Attachment | The strong, enduring, survival-based emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver. |
| Contact Comfort | The physical and emotional comfort derived from soft, reassuring bodily contact, which Harlow's monkey research proved is more foundational to attachment security than nourishment. |
| Critical or sensitive periods | A specific optimal window of time early in development during which an organism must be exposed to certain stimuli or experiences to develop a particular skill or trait (such as language) normally. |
| Imprinting (Lorenz) | The rapid, rigid process by which certain non-human animals form a strong attachment to and follow the very first moving object they encounter shortly after birth. |
| Ecological systems theory | Bronfenbrenner's environmental framework stating that development is simultaneously shaped by the interaction of five nested environmental systems. |
| Microsystem | The innermost layer of environmental systems in Ecological systems theory, containing the groups and settings with which the individual has direct, daily, face-to-face contact (e.g., family, school, peers). |
| Mesosystem | The structural system in Ecological systems theory, consisting of the linkages, relationships, and interactions occurring between different settings within an individual's microsystem (e.g., the relationship between a child's parents and their teachers). |
| Exosystem | The environmental layer in Ecological systems theory containing institutions that influence an individual's development, despite the individual not being directly involved in them (e.g., a parent's workplace policies or local community funding). |
| Macrosystem | The overarching cultural, societal, political, and ideological values, laws, traditions, and beliefs that influence all other nested environmental systems in Ecological systems theory. |
| Chronosystem | In Ecological systems theory, the temporal dimension of development, encompassing life transitions, environmental sociohistorical shifts, and the specific stage of life an individual is currently experiencing. |
| Ainsworth's Strange Situation | An observational research procedure designed to evaluate infant attachment styles by observing an infant's reactions to a cycle of separations and reunions with their caregiver in an unfamiliar room. |
| Secure Attachment | An attachment classification where the infant explores comfortably in the caregiver's presence, displays distress when they leave, and is quickly comforted and calmed upon the caregiver's return. Correlated with sensitive, responsive caregiving. |
| Insecure Attachment | An attachment classification where an infant exhibits anxiety, avoidance, or confusion regarding their primary caregiver, failing to use them as a secure base. Correlated with inconsistent, rejecting, or neglectful caregiving. |
| Avoidant Attachment | A form of insecure attachment where the child exhibits minimal distress during separation and actively avoids, ignores, or resists comfort upon reunion with the caregiver. |
| Anxious Attachment | A form of insecure attachment where the child exhibits extreme distress during separation, and upon reunion displays clingy, angry, or resistant behavior, reflecting a fear of abandonment. |
| Disorganized Attachment | A form of insecure attachment where the child exhibits confused, flat, fearful, or contradictory behaviors upon the caregiver's return (ex: freezing or approaching while looking away). |
| Temperament | An individual's innate, genetically influenced characteristic pattern of emotional reactivity, intensity, and self-regulation, observed shortly after birth. |
| Baumrind's Parenting styles of Caregivers | A classification system identifying distinct approaches to parenting based on varying levels of demandingness (rules) and responsiveness (warmth). |
| Authoritarian | A parenting style characterized by imposing strict rules, expecting unquestioning obedience, and offering low emotional responsiveness. Think: AuthoriTARIAN is like a totalitarian dictator (Dictator = cold, strict rules). |
| Permissive | A parenting style characterized by high emotional warmth and responsiveness but very few demands, boundaries, or disciplinary actions. |
| Negligent | A parenting style characterized by indifference, lack of supervision, and a failure to provide adequate attention, involvement, or care for a child's basic needs. |
| Authoritative | A balanced parenting style characterized by setting clear rules and high expectations while remaining emotionally warm, responsive, and open to discussion. |
| Peer relationships | Social connections formed with individuals of a similar age and status, which gradually grow in importance during adolescence and shape social, emotional, and cognitive development. |
| Parallel play | A social milestone where young children play adjacent to or near each other with similar materials but do not actively interact or try to influence each other's behavior. |
| Imaginary audience | A form of adolescent egocentrism where an individual intensely believes that peers and others are constantly watching, evaluating, and judging their every move and appearance. |
| The personal fable | A form of adolescent egocentrism characterized by the belief that one's own thoughts, feelings, and experiences are completely unique, special, and that one is invulnerable to typical risks or consequences. |
| Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) | Traumatic, stressful events occurring during childhood (abuse, neglect, household dysfunction) that can alter brain development and cause long-term physical and psychological health outcomes. |
| Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent, age-inappropriate patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that disrupt functioning. |
| Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in social communication and interaction, alongside restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities. |
| Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development | A theory proposing that individuals must successfully navigate and resolve a specific psychosocial conflict/crisis at eight distinct chronological stages to develop a healthy sense of self. |
| Trust vs mistrust | Erikson's 1st stage of Psychosocial Development (infancy) where children learn whether or not they can rely on caregivers to meet their basic biological needs. |
| Autonomy vs shame and doubt | Erikson's 2nd stage of Psychosocial Development (toddlerhood) where children strive to achieve physical self-control and independence over actions. |
| Initiative vs guilt | Erikson's 3rd stage of Psychosocial Development (preschool) where children assert power and control over their environment by planning activities and asking questions. |
| Industry vs inferiority | Erikson's 4th stage of Psychosocial Development (elementary school) where children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks and being evaluated by social and academic standards. |
| Identity vs role confusion | Erikson's 5th stage of Psychosocial Development (adolescence) where individuals test boundaries and try out different roles to forge a unified, coherent sense of self. |
| Intimacy vs isolation | Erikson's 6th stage of Psychosocial Development (young adulthood) where individuals face the developmental task of forming deep, committed, loving relationships with others. |
| Generativity vs stagnation | Erikson's 7th stage of Psychosocial Development (middle adulthood) where individuals reflect on their contributions to the world through family, work, or community to feel a sense of purpose. |
| Integrity vs despair | Erikson's 8th stage of Psychosocial Development (late adulthood) where individuals look back on their lifespan to determine if their life was meaningful or filled with regret. |
| Identity Statuses | James Marcia's framework explaining how adolescents navigate Erikson's identity crisis based on whether they have explored alternatives and made a commitment. |
| Achievement (Identity Status) | The identity status achieved when an individual has actively explored alternative paths and successfully committed to a clear set of values, beliefs, and goals. |
| Diffusion (Identity Status) | The identity status where an individual has not yet explored alternatives and has made no commitment to an identity or life direction. |
| Foreclosure (Identity Status) | The identity status where an individual accepts and commits to an identity or role handed down by external figures (like parents) without actively questioning or exploring alternatives. |
| Moratorium (Identity Status) | The identity status where an individual is currently in the midst of an active identity crisis, exploring various roles and paths but has not yet made a definitive commitment. |
| Racial/ethnic identity | A multifaceted component of personal identity rooted in one's sense of shared racial or ethnic background, cultural heritage, and group membership. |
| Gender identity | An individual's personal, internal sense of being male, female, or another gender, which typically solidifies in early childhood. |
| Sexual orientation | An individual's enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction to individuals of a particular sex or gender. |
| Religious identity | A component of personal identity built upon adherence to specific religious beliefs, rituals, and active membership within a faith community. |
| Occupational identity | A component of identity defined by an individual's chosen career path, professional goals, and alignment with a field of work. |
| Familial identity | A component of identity derived from an individual's roles, relationships, expectations, and values within their family structure. |
| Possible selves | The cognitive mental representations of who an individual dreams of becoming (ideal self), realistically expects to become, or fears becoming in the future, which serve as motivators for behavior. |
| Puberty | The period of rapid physical maturation and hormonal changes during adolescence that results in the attainment of reproductive capability. |
| Primary Sex Characteristics | The biological body structures directly involved in reproduction, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia. |
| Secondary Sex Characteristics | Non-reproductive physical traits that develop due to hormone increases during puberty, such as breast development, facial hair, and voice changes. |
| Menarche | A female's first menstrual cycle. |
| Spermarche | A male's first ejaculation, indicating the onset of sperm production. |
| Intersex | A term describing individuals born with congenital variations in reproductive anatomy, chromosomes, or hormones that do not align with typical biological definitions of male or female. |
| Sex | The biological and physiological traits, including chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy, that define an individual as male or female. |
| Gender | The socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities that a given society associates with being male or female. |
| Gender Roles | The specific behavioral expectations, duties, and attitudes that a culture assigns to males and females. |
| Emerging Adulthood | A modern socio-developmental transitional period spanning from late adolescence to early adulthood (roughly ages 18-25) where individuals explore identities and lack full independence. |
| Late adulthood declines | The natural, gradual physical leveling off and subsequent decline in bodily systems that occurs in older age. |
| Menopause | The natural, biological cessation of menstruation in women, marking the end of reproductive capability. |
| Neurocognitive disorder | An acquired cognitive decline in one or more domains (such as memory, attention, or language) caused by an underlying medical condition affecting the brain. |
| Dementia | An umbrella medical term describing a significant, progressive decline in mental and cognitive abilities severe enough to interfere with daily functional living. |
| Alzheimer's Disease | A specific progressive neurocognitive disorder characterized by the gradual destruction of brain cells, leading to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. |
| Crystallized intelligence | accumulated knowledge, facts, and vocabulary that remains stable or improves as we age. |
| Fluid intelligence | abstract reasoning, spatial abilities, and processing speed that steadily declines in late adulthood. |
| Social Clock | The culturally defined, preferred timing for major adult life transitions and milestones, such as leaving home, marrying, purchasing a home, having children, and retiring. |
Created by:
lcurty100