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Research 26-27
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Hindsight Bias | The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you would have foreseen it; the "I knew it all along" phenomenon. |
| Confirmation Bias | The tendency to only seek out, interpret, and recall information that supports the position, hypothesis, or idea that you already believed while ignoring contradicting evidence. ex: only reading news articles that match your preexisting worldview. |
| Overconfidence | A cognitive bias that occurs when someone has an unrealistic, exaggerated belief about their abilities, knowledge, or performance. Leads people to believe they do not need empirical research because they think they already understand human behavior. |
| Theory | An organized system of assumptions and principles used to explain a specified set of phenomena and their relationships. |
| Hypothesis | A testable, predictive statement of the expected relationship between two or more variables. |
| Falsifiability | The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered genuinely scientific, it must be possible to have empirical evidence that could prove it false. |
| Peer Review | The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by other independent experts in the exact same field to ensure its quality, methodology, and validity before publication. |
| Operational Definition | A highly detailed, objective description of how a researcher will manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable. Intended to allow another independent researcher to precisely replicate the study under the exact same conditions. |
| Replication | Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced. |
| Correlational Research | A non-experimental research design focused on observing and measuring the statistical relationship between variables without manipulating them. |
| Case Study | An in-depth, descriptive research method where a researcher focuses heavily on one unique individual or small group. Provides rich, detailed qualitative data, but cannot be generalized to the broader population because the subject is too unique. |
| Naturalistic Observation | A descriptive research method that involves watching and recording the behavior of subjects in their natural environment without any interference or manipulation by the researcher. |
| Qualitative Research | Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, such as behavioral observations, structured interviews, or textual analysis, to understand subjective experiences. |
| Quantitative Research | Research that focuses on gathering, measuring, and analyzing numerical data to uncover statistical relationships, patterns, or trends. |
| Survey | A research technique used to ascertain the self-reported attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a particular group, typically by questioning a representative, random sample of that group. |
| Random Sampling | A sampling technique where every single member of a target population has an equal, non-zero chance of being selected to participate in the study. |
| Representative Sample | A carefully selected sample that accurately reflects the demographic characteristics of the larger target population; it must be randomly selected and sufficiently large to allow for generalizability. |
| Convenience Sampling | A non-probability sampling technique where researchers choose participants who are easiest to recruit or closest at hand. Leads to results that can't be generalized. |
| Sampling Bias | A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample because it is too small, non-random, or relies on convenience, meaning certain members of the population are systematically excluded. |
| Population | The entire, overarching group of individuals from which a sample may be drawn and to which the final results of a study will apply. |
| Correlational Research | A non-experimental research methodology designed to determine the extent to which two or more variables covary or change together. |
| Illusory Correlation | Perceiving a relationship or statistical association between two variables where absolutely no such relationship exists. Often linked to superstitions (ex: believing it always rains right after you wash your car, or that ice cream sales cause drownings). |
| Regression toward the Mean | The statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores to naturally average out over time; if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will typically move closer to the population average on the next measurement. |
| Correlation vs. Causation | The foundational scientific principle that a statistical relationship between two variables does not mean that one variable causes a change in the other. Cause-and-effect can only be determined by an experiment. |
| Directionality Problem | A flaw in correlational research where it is known that a relationship exists between two variables, but it is impossible to determine which variable is causing the change in the other. |
| Third Variable Problem | A flaw in correlational research where the observed relationship between two variables is actually being caused by an unmeasured, extraneous variable. |
| Experimental Research | A research methodology involving the manipulation of an independent variable and the random assignment of participants to prove absolute cause and effect. |
| Experimental Group | The group of participants in an experiment who receive the active treatment, manipulation, or independent variable being tested. |
| Research Confederate | An actor who is secretly working for the researcher and participates in the experiment while pretending to be a regular subject to manipulate the social environment. |
| Control Group | The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the active treatment or independent variable, instead serving as a baseline for comparison. |
| Random Assignment | The process of sorting randomly selected participants into the control or experimental groups by chance, giving each participant an equal probability of landing in either group. (eliminates the influence of confounding variables). |
| Double Blind Procedure | An experimental safeguard where both the research participants and the staff interacting with them are completely unaware of who has received the active treatment or the placebo. Designed to eliminate experimenter bias and participant expectancy effects. |
| Single Blind Procedure | An experimental safeguard where the participants are kept unaware of whether they are receiving the active treatment or a placebo, but the researcher knows. |
| Placebo | An inactive, harmless substance or fake treatment (ex: a sugar pill) given to the control group so they have the exact same expectations as the experimental group. |
| Placebo Effect | Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior or physiology caused by the administration of an inert substance, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. |
| Independent Variable | The experimental factor that is deliberately manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effects. |
| Confounding Variable | An uncontrolled, extraneous factor other than the independent variable that might unintendedly influence the results of an experiment, ruining the ability to prove causation. |
| Dependent Variable | The experimental factor that is measured by the researcher; the outcome variable that changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
| Descriptive Statistics | Numerical data used to organize, summarize, and describe a specific sample or data set. |
| Effect Size | A statistical measurement that indicates the strength or magnitude of a relationship between variables or the size of an independent variable's influence on the dependent variable. |
| Small Effect | An effect size statistic of 0.2 and below, indicating a very weak relationship or minimal difference between groups. |
| Medium Effect | An effect size statistic between 0.3 and 0.7, indicating a moderate relationship or noticeable difference between groups. |
| Large Effect | An effect size statistic of 0.8 or greater, indicating a strong relationship or a highly impactful difference between groups. |
| Correlational Coefficient or R | A statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that quantifies the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. Zero signifies the weakest possible relationship. |
| Positive Correlation | A relationship where two variables move in the same direction (quantified from +0.01 to +1.00). |
| Negative Correlation | A relationship where two variables move in opposite directions (quantified from -0.01 to -1.00). |
| Scatter Plot | A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, where the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship and the amount of scatter suggests the strength. |
| Histogram | A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution, where the width of the bars represents intervals and the height represents the frequency of scores, with no spaces between the bars. |
| Measures of Central Tendency | Statistical measures used to locate the single central point or middle of a distribution of data, consisting of the mean, median, and mode. |
| Mode | A measure of central tendency that indicates the most frequently occurring score or value in a specific distribution of data. |
| Mean | A measure of central tendency that indicates the mathematical average of a distribution, computed by adding all the scores together and then dividing by the total number of scores. |
| Median | A measure of central tendency that indicates the middle score in a distribution; if there are two middle scores when arranged in numerical order, one must average the two middle scores. |
| Positive Skew | A data distribution that is distorted by a few unusually high outliers, causing the tail of the graph to pull to the right. |
| Negative Skew | A data distribution that is distorted by a few unusually low outliers, causing the tail of the graph to pull to the left. |
| Measures of Variation | Statistical calculations that describe how spread out, dispersed, or varied the scores in a distribution are from one another. |
| Range | A measure of variation calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a data set. |
| Standard Deviation | A measure of variation that computes the average distance between each individual data point and the mean of the distribution. |
| Normal Distribution/ Normal Curve/ Bell Curve | A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution where the mean, median, and mode are identical and sit perfectly in the exact center of the curve. |
| Skewed Distribution | An asymmetrical frequency distribution of scores that is distorted because of the presence of outliers, causing an unequal balance on either side of the center. |
| Bimodal Distribution | A frequency distribution that contains two distinct peaks or highly frequent scores, suggesting the presence of two separate underlying groups within the data. |
| Percentile Rank | The percentage of scores that fall below a particular score. |
| Inferential Statistics | Numerical data and mathematical procedures that allow researchers to determine if their sample data can be generalized to the larger population. |
| Generalizability | The extent to which the conclusions of a study can be applied to the population outside of the study. Determined by if the sample represents the population. |
| Statistical Significance / P | A statistical statement of how likely it is that the results occurred by chance. A result is considered statistically significant if the p-value is 0.05 or less, meaning there is a 5% or lower probability that the results happened by accident. |
| False Consensus Effect | The cognitive tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our own personal opinions, beliefs, attributes, or behaviors. |
| Experimenter Bias | The unintentional, unconscious influence of an experimenter's expectations, beliefs, or preconceived notions on the outcome or data collection of a study. |
| Social Desirability Bias | The tendency for research participants to provide responses or behaviors that make them look good, moral, or socially acceptable rather than giving their honest, true answers. |
| Self-Report Bias | A general tendency for participants to provide inaccurate, distorted, or misleading information about themselves on surveys due to memory lapses, lack of self-awareness, or social pressure. |
| Meta-Analysis | A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the quantitative data and results from many different independent research studies on the same topic to identify overall trends. |
| Institutional Review (IRB) | A committee at a research university or institution that reviews all proposed human research studies to ensure they adhere to ethical guidelines and protect participant welfare. |
| IACUC Ethical Guidelines for Animals | The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee regulations that govern research involving non-human animals, requiring a clear scientific purpose, legal acquisition, humane treatment, and minimal suffering. |
| APA Ethical Guidelines for People | The comprehensive code of ethics established by the APA to safeguard human participants during psychological research. Includes No Coercion, Informed Consent / Assent, Confidentiality, Anonymity, Protection from Harm, and Debriefing. |
| General Intelligence or "G" Factor | A singular, overarching cognitive capacity that underlies all specific intellectual tasks and mental performances. |
| Factor Analysis | A complex statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related test items; used by researchers to determine if a test measures a single underlying dimension or multiple distinct traits. |
| Multiple Intelligences | The theory that intelligence is not a single mental trait, but rather a collection of eight completely independent mental spheres: logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, and naturalistic. |
| Triarchic Theory of Intelligence | A theory proposing that intelligence is composed of three distinct, practical dimensions: Analytical (academic problem-solving), Practical (street smarts and adaptation), and Creative (dealing with novel situations and innovation). |
| Emotional Intelligence | The capacity to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively to navigate social situations and personal stress. |
| Intelligence Test | A standardized method for assessing an individual's global mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores. |
| Aptitude Test | A psychological test designed to predict a person's future performance, capacity, or potential to learn a brand-new skill (ex: the SAT). |
| Achievement Test | A psychological test designed to assess, measure, and verify what a person has already learned and mastered up to that point (ex: an AP Exam). |
| Eugenics | A discriminatory 19th-century social movement that advocated for the systematic improvement of human genetic traits by encouraging reproduction among "intelligent" individuals and discouraging or forcing sterilization for those deemed inferior. |
| Intelligent Quotient (IQ) | A numerical score derived from standardized tests that quantifies a person's cognitive ability relative to their peers. |
| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | The most widely utilized standardized intelligence test in modern times, containing distinct verbal and performance subtests to measure both language-based and nonverbal cognitive abilities. |
| Psychometrics | The specialized field of psychology devoted to the objective, quantitative measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational achievements. |
| Standardization | The process of defining uniform testing procedures and testing environments for every single test-taker, and scoring the test by comparing individual performance against a pretested norm group. |
| Reliability | The extent to which a psychological assessment yields highly consistent, dependable, and reproducible results over multiple administrations. |
| Split-Half Reliability | A method of checking consistency by splitting a single test into two halves (ex: odd vs. even questions) and checking if an individual's score on both halves correlates strongly. |
| Test-Retest Reliability | A method of checking consistency by administering the exact same psychological test to the exact same individuals at two different points in time to see if their scores remain stable. |
| Validity | The extent to which a psychological test measures or predicts what it is designed and intended to measure. |
| Predictive Validity | The success with which a test forecasts the future behavior or performance it is designed to predict; assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and a future criterion. |
| Construct Validity | The accumulation of scientific evidence showing that an assessment accurately measures the abstract, theoretical psychological concept it claims to measure (ex: ensuring an IQ test measures genuine intelligence rather than just cultural knowledge). |
| Socio-culturally Responsive | Designing psychological assessments to be aware of, sensitive to, and respectful of the diverse cultural backgrounds, language differences, and life experiences of test-takers to avoid institutional bias. |
| Stereotype Threat | A self-confirming psychological anxiety where a person experiences intense fear that they will validate a negative stereotype about their social or demographic group, which unconsciously causes their test performance to suffer. |
| Stereotype Lift | A performance boost that occurs when a person is made aware of a positive stereotype about their social or demographic group, resulting in an artificial inflation of confidence and test scores. |
| Flynn Effect | Average intelligence quotient scores increased across much of the globe between 1900 and 1990. Driven by environmental factors (better nutrition, higher socioeconomic status, increased schooling, and technological exposure). |
| Longitudinal Study | A correlational research design where the same individuals are repeatedly observed, retested, and evaluated over a long period of time to track changes across the lifespan. |
| Cohort | A specific group of people who share a common set of defining demographic characteristics or historical experiences, most notably being born in the exact same era or age bracket. |
| Cross-Sectional Study | A correlational research design where individuals of different age groups are selected and compared with one another at one single point in time. |
| Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory | A theory of intelligence proposing that human cognitive ability is structured hierarchically, composed of broad fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and various cognitive sub-skills. |
| Fluid Intelligence | Our inherent, quick capability to reason abstractly, solve novel problems, and process information rapidly, which naturally peaks in early adulthood and slowly decreases in old age. |
| Crystallized Intelligence | Our accumulated pool of knowledge, facts, vocabulary, and verbal skills gained through education and life experience, which steadily increases or stays stable across the entire lifespan into old age. |
| Fixed Mindset | The belief that intelligence, talent, and basic cognitive abilities are unchangeable traits that you are born with. |
| Growth Mindset | The belief that intelligence, academic skills, and talents can be expanded, developed, and mastered through effort, practice, and strategies. Correlates with tendency to embrace challenges, persist, and experience higher academic achievement. |
| Savant Syndrome | A rare condition where an individual who otherwise scores exceptionally low on traditional general intelligence tests exhibits an unparalleled, brilliant, and spectacular specific skill (ex: rapid mathematical calculation or photographic artwork). |
| Nature vs. Nurture | The long-standing scientific debate concerning the relative contributions that genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental experiences (nurture) make to the development of human psychological traits and behaviors. |
| Biopsychosocial Approach | An integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints to analyze human behavior, mental processes, or intelligence. |
| Identical Twins / Monozygotic | Siblings who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two identical halves, creating two individuals who share 100% of the genetic code. |
| Fraternal Twins / Dizygotic | Siblings who develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, making them no more genetically similar than regular brothers and sisters. |
| Evolutionary Perspective | Explores how natural selection favors traits that increased our ancestors' survival and reproductive success. Any traits present today must have helped ancient ancestors survive, so that's why the traits are still present. |
| Charles Darwin's Natural Selection | The evolutionary principle that heritable biological and behavioral traits that lead to increased survival and reproduction in a specific environment will be passed on to future generations. |
| Heritable Traits | Any physical or behavioral characteristics that can be passed down from parents to offspring through DNA. |
| Epigenetics | The study of environmental factors (ex: stress, diet, poverty) that can alter or trigger gene expression without causing any change to the underlying DNA sequence. |
Created by:
lcurty100