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Devel. Psych Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Biological processes | produce changes in an individual's physical nature |
| Cognitive Processes | changes in the individual's thought, intelligence, and language |
| socioemotional processes | changes in the individual's relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality |
| prenatal period | time from conception to birth |
| infancy | developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months |
| toddler | child from about 18 months to 3 years of age |
| early childhood | developmental period from 3 through 5 years of age |
| middle and late childhood | developmental period from about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age |
| adolescence | developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, approximately 10 to 12 years of age ending at 18 to 21 years of age |
| emerging adulthood | developmental period from approximately 18 to 25 years old |
| early adulthood | developmental period that begins in early 20s and lasts through the 30s |
| middle adulthood | developmental period from approximately 40 to about 60 years of age |
| late adulthood | developmental period that begins in the 60s or 70s and lasts until death |
| normal aging | characterizes most individuals, psychological functioning often peaks in early middle age, remains relatively stable until the late 50s to early 60s and then shows a modest decline through the early 80s |
| pathological aging | characterizes individuals who show greater than average decline as they age through adult years |
| successful aging | characterizes individuals whose positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer, declining later in old age than is the case for most people |
| chronological age | the number of ears that have elapsed since birth |
| biological age | person's age in terms of biological health |
| psychological age | an individual's adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age |
| social age | connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt |
| nature-nurture issue | debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature and nurture |
| stability-change issue | debate about whether we become older renditions of our early experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development |
| continuity-discontinuity issue | debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages |
| psychoanalytic theories | theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. behavior is merely a surface characteristic and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior |
| cognitive theories | theories that emphasize conscious thought |
| behavioral and social cognitive theories | holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development |
| ethological theory | theory that behavior is strongly influences by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods |
| ecological theory | theory that emphasizes that environmental factors has a strong impact on behavior |
| eclectic theoretical orientation | an orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it |
| correlational reseach | research that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics |
| experimental research | research that studies causality, uses an experiment to demonstrate cause and effect |
| cross-sectional approach | a research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one point in time |
| longitudinal approach | research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more |
| behavior genetics | the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development |
| heredity environment correlations | individuals' genes may be systematically related to the types of environments to which they are exposed |
| epigenetic view | emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment |
| germinal period | period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception, includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall |
| embryonic period | period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear |
| fetal period | lasts about seven months, the period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies |
| teratogen | any agent that causes a birth defect |
| hazards for pregnancy | caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, heroin |
| low birth weight infants | weighs less than 5 pounds 8 ounces at birth |
| preterm infants | born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached it full term |
| small for date infants | those whose birth weight is below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered |
| cephalocaudal pattern | developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top-the head- with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom |
| proximodistal pattern | developmental sequence in which growth starts at the center fo the body and moves toward the extremities |
| the brain in infancy | by this time, the infants brain contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells, developing rapidly |
| sleep in infancy | infant's sleep is linked to children's cognitive development |
| reflexes | built-in reactions to stimuli, they are automatic and beyond control |
| rooting reflex | occurs when the infant's cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched, in response the infant turns their head toward the side that is touched |
| sucking reflex | reaction to automatically suck an object placed in the mouth |
| moro reflex | neonatal startle response in which newborns arch their back, throw their head back, fling out their arms and legs, and then pull their arms and legs close to the center of the body |
| grasping reflex | neonatal reflex that occurs when something touches the infant's palms and the infant responds by grasping tightly |
| gross motor skills | motor skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as walking |
| fine motor skills | motor skills that involve more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity |
| schemes | in Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge |
| assimilation | Piagetian concept of using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences |
| accommodation | Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences |
| sensorimotor stage | the first of Piaget's stages, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age; infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motoric actions |
| object permanence | the Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched |
| conditioning | belief that the consequence's of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurrence |
| attention | the focusing of mental resources on select information |
| memory | a central feature of cognitive development, pertaining to all situations in which an individual retains information over time |
| primary emotions | emotions that are present in humans and other animals and emerge early in life; examples are joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust |
| self-conscious emotions | emotions that require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me"; examples include jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment |
| basic cry | rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the next cry |
| anger cry | variation of the basic cry in which more excess air is forced through the vocal cords |
| pain cry | sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is present |
| reflexive smile | smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears during the first month after birth, usually during sleep |
| social smile | smile that occurs in response to an external stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young infant |
| stranger anxiety | infant's fear and wariness of strangers; it tends to appear during the second half of the first year of life |
| seperation protest | infant's distressed crying when the caregiver leaves |
| temperament | involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding |
| easy child | generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences |
| difficult child | reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change |
| slow-to-warm-up child | has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood |
| goodness of fit | the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope |
| social referencing | "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation |
| attachment | close emotional bond between two people |
| harlow monkey infant study | study that clearly demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is important |
| securely attached babies | babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment |
| insecure avoidant babies | babies who show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver |
| insecure resistant babies | babies who often cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away |
| insecure disorganized babies | babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented |
| preoperational stage | Piaget's second stage, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings, and symbolic thought goes beyond simple connections of sensory information and physical action |
| centration | focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others |
| conservation | in Piaget's theory, awareness that altering an object's or a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties |
| zone of proximal development | Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with the assistance of adults or more-skilled children |
| scaffolding | changing the level of support |
| executive function | umbrella-like concept that consists of a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex |
| theory of mind | awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others |
| initiative versus guilt | at this stage, children have become convinced that they are persons in their own right |
| emotion-coaching parents | parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions |
| emotion-dismissing parents | parents choose to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions in their children |
| gender identity | the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old |
| gender roles | sets of expectations that prescribe how boys/men and girls/women should act, think, and feel |
| gender typing | acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
| gender | a mosaic of categories related to femininity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms |
| social role theory | theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women |
| authoritarian parenting | restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect their work and effort. places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange |
| authoritative parenting | parenting style in which parents encourage their children to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions. extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parent are warm and nurturing towards the child |
| neglectful parenting | style of parenting in which the parent is uninvolved in the child's life; this style is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control |
| indulgent parenting | style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or control on them. |
| learning disability | difficulty in understanding or using spoken or written language or in doing mathematics |
| dyslexia | category of learning disabilities involving a severe impairment in the ability to read and spell |
| dysgraphia | learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting |
| dyscalculia | learning disability that involves difficulty in math computation |
| ADHD | disability in which children consistently show inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity |
| Autism spectrum disorder | children with these disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors |
| concrete operational stage | lasts approximately 7 to 11 years of age, children can perform concrete operations, and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples |
| working memory | mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language |
| metacognition | cognition about cognition, or knowing about knowing |
| intelligence | problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and adapt to the experiences of everyday life |
| mental age | Binet's measure of an individual's level of mental development compared with that of others |
| intelligence quotient | person's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence |
| intellectual disability | condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, has difficulty adapting to the demands of everyday life, and first exhibits these characteristics by age 18 |
Created by:
taylor.post