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BIO FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is the number at the top of the box for an element and what is it also the number of | atomic #, is the number of protons and electrons |
| what is the number at the bottom of a box for an element | atomic mass, is the number of protons and neutrons |
| what is the mass of a proton | 1 amu |
| what is the mass of a neutron | 1 amu |
| what is the mass of an electron | very little |
| what does the number of electrons determine | how atoms bond |
| what is a shell in an atom | outermost part of the atom, has valence electrons in it |
| atoms prefer to have ____ valence electrons in their orbitals | 8 |
| what is an isotope | the same element but it has different amounts of neutrons in the nuclei |
| ionic bond | electrons are transferred from one atom to another |
| covalent bond | electrons are shared from one atom to another |
| hydrogen bond | weak bonds that can seperate molecules easily, found in water and dna |
| list bonds from weakest to strongest | hydrogen, covalent, ionic |
| sharing of electrons is equal in a covalent bond: true or false | FALSE |
| polarity | when there is unequal charge in a molecule |
| when a slight attraction helps keep molecules together | van der wals forces |
| cohesion | molecules of the SAME substance sticking togehter |
| adhesion | molecules of DIFFERENT substances sticking together |
| cation | positive charge |
| anion | negative charge |
| how do ions form | through ionic bonds |
| atoms are represented by | elements |
| atoms combine chemically to make | molecules |
| solution | solute dissolved in solvent |
| suspension | the particles are so tiny they don't dissolve and they sit |
| solvent | what there is a solute being dissolved in (example, the water in salt water) |
| solute | what is being dissolved in the solvent |
| chemical/molecular formula | the ingredients (ex; H2O, C6H12O6) |
| structural formula- | showing the structure/arrangement of atoms in the element |
| capillary action | the ability of a liquid to flow in a narrow space or tube against gravity |
| surface tension | the property of a liquid's surface to act like a stretched, elastic film due to inter molecular forces |
| enzymes are a type of | protein |
| enzymes are (three things) | can be used multiple times make processes faster and more efficient keep homeostasis |
| homeostasis | a stable body condition |
| catalyst | something that makes a process or reaction faster |
| look at your enzyme graphs in book | did u? :) |
| enzymes operate best at | a specific temp and pH |
| denature | means break down and dies |
| What happens when an enzyme denatures? | the shape of the enzyme changes and the enzyme no longer fits into the substrate |
| enzymes end in | -ase |
| explain the pH system | it has 1-14, with 7 being balanced (lower is acidic and higher is basic) |
| basic | has a low concentration of H+ ions (OH-) |
| acidic | has a high concentration of H+ ions |
| what does the pH system do | indicates the concentration of H+ ions |
| each pH value is ___ x more than the next | 10 |
| we keep our pH balanced with | buffers (weak acids and bases) |
| nucleic acids | molecules containing CHONP (n is for Nitrogen and P is for Phosphorus) |
| nucleotides | monomers of nucleic acid, contain a 5 carbon sugar with a phosphate group and nitrogen base |
| organic compounds | compounds that contain carbon |
| how many valence electrons does carbon have | 4 |
| how many strong covalent bonds can carbon make | 4 |
| what forms a macromolecule | taking monomers and putting them together |
| protoplasm | makes up cells, building and breaking life's molecules |
| dehydration synthesis | condensation reactions) removing H2O to synthesize two molecules together (this is how Macromolecules form) |
| take a minute to look and redraw all of the diagrams found in your notebook | did u do it? :) |
| hydrolysis | removing water to separate molecules |
| carbohydrates | molecules that contain C H and O, easy and cheap energy |
| monosaccharides | simple sugar, ring shaped, C6H12O6 |
| disaccarides | double sugar, C12H22O11 |
| polysaccharides | contains 3 or more monosaccharides |
| isomers | two or more compounds with the same formula but different arrangement of atoms |
| name 4 polysaccharides | starch, glycogen, chitin, cellulose |
| starch | energy storage compound (amalayze in plants, turns into glycogen in animals) |
| glycogen | stored energy in the liver |
| cellulose | most abundant organic compound on earth, part of plant structure |
| chitin | the exo skeletons of like crabs and stuff, second most abundant organic compound on earth |
| cellulose | most abundant organic compound on earth, part of plant structure |
| glucose+glucose= | maltose |
| glucose+fructose= | sucrose |
| lipids | contains C H and O, are the most concentrated energy |
| what are the two building blocks of fats | fatty acids and glycerol |
| two parts of a fatty acid | carboxyl and carbon |
| triglyceride | three fatty acids and a glycogen |
| phospholipid | two fatty acids+glycerol+one phosphate |
| proteins | molecules that contain C, H, O and Nitrogen, and they are not a good energy source but are good for growth and repair |
| what are the "monomers" of protein | amino acids |
| amino acids join by joining what two things together | carboyxl and amine |
| amino acids often end in | -ine |
| structure= | function |
| dipeptide bond | two proteins joined together |
| primary structure | sequence of amino acids |
| secondary structure | folded-beta pleated sheet twisted-alpha helix |
| tertiary structure | folded or twisted ontop of itself |
| quantianary structure | 2 peptides joined together |
| fats do what, and what are their cell membranes called | they store energy, and the membranes are called myelin |
| saturated fat | solid (like butter or lard), straight molecules, stacked tight |
| unsaturated fat | liquid like oils, double bonds, kinks and don't stack tightly |
| Freidrich Meischer | nuclein |
| Fredrick Griffith | transformation of bacteria |
| Oswald Avery | DNA causes transformation |
| Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase | DNA is not protein |
| Erwin Chargaff | base pairings A=T, C=G |
| Rosalind Franklin | used x ray diffraction to get the very first picture of DNA, which was photo 51 |
| Linus Pauling | triple helix |
| Maurice Wilkins | shared photo 51 with Watson and Crick |
| Watson and Crick | double helix |
| cell division occurs in what two stages | mitosis and cytokenesis |
| why is it important to have a good SA:V ratio | because it helps things diffuse faster and help the cell live |
| the higher the mass, the ______ the SA:V ratio | lower |
| mitosis | division of the nucleus |
| cytokenesis | division of the cytoplasm |
| chromosomes are made of ______ | DNA |
| chromosomes are duplicated (before or after?) chromatid | BEFORE |
| what happens in prophase | nuclear envelope breaks down, chromosomes become visible and spindle fibers form |
| what happens in metaphase | chromosomes line up in the middle and are attached to the spindle fibers |
| what happens in anaphase | chromatids are pulled away from eachother |
| what happens in telophase | two nuclei, nuclear envelope reforms |
| what happens in cytokenesis | the cytoplasm splits and two IDENTICAL DIPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS ARE FORMED |
| list the order of the cell cycle | G1,G2,Rest/S phase, mitosis and then cytokenesis |
| what happens in interphase 1 | cell replicates DNA |
| what happens in prophase 1 | each chromosome pairs with homologus chromosome to form a tetrad |
| what happens in metaphase 1 | spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes and line up in the middle |
| what happens in anaphase 1 | spindle fibers pull them away |
| what happens in telophase 1 | creates two unique cells |
| what happens in prophase 2 | NO COPYING OF CHROMOSOMES |
| what happens in metaphase 2 | the chromosomes go to the center |
| what happens in anaphase 2What are the five steps of the scientific method | seperate move to opposite sides of the cell |
| what happens in telophase 2/cytokenesis | we get 4 genetically diverse haploid cells |
| G1 | cell grows, synthesizes proteins and organelles |
| rest phase/S phase | the rest phase is when the cell doesn't need to grow any more and it stops, and S phase is when they are replicating DNA |
| G2 | cell gets ready to divide |
| scientific inquiry | the development of explainations |
| scientific theory | explains how something in nature works |
| scientific law | explains that something happens in certain conditions in nature, BUT DOES NOT EXPLAIN HOW IT WORKS |
| psuedoscience | science that is not based off of fact |
| What are the five steps of the scientific method | observation, hypothesis, experiment, analyze data, conclusion |
| SI units | what we use in the USA |
| Look over how to do the metric conversions and what is the order of them? | Kilometers, Hecameters, Decameters, Meters/grams, Centimiters, Mililiters |
| magnification | makes something bigger |
| resolution | makes you able to see something clearly |
| Magnification of a light microscope | up to 1000 times |
| how to compound microscopes work? | they allow light to pass through the specimen and use two lenses to form and image |
| can compound/light microscopes view living things? | yes |
| how do electron microscopes work | they use an electron beam rather than light |
| can electron microscopes view living specimens? | no |
| what is a cell fractional | its spins at a high speed and separates parts of the cell |
| what does a cell fractional use | a centrifuse |
| what are the 6 levels of cellular studies | atoms, cells, tissue, organ, organ system, organism |
| what are the 5 levels of environmental studies | population, community, ecosystem, biome,biosphere |
| what are the 3 domains of life | eubacteria, archaea and eukaryota |
| all cells are surrounded by a thin, flexible barrier known as _____________ | cell membrane |
| the cell membrane is composed of a __________ | phospholipid bilayer |
| what is cholestorols role in the phospholipid bilayer | helps maintain fluidity and prevent extremes |
| what is proteins role in the phospholipid bilayer | are like doors |
| carbohydrates role in the phospolipid bilayer | use signals to recognize/signal eachother |
| the cell membrane is often reffered to as a _____ | fluid mosaic model |
| What percent of life is extinct | 99% |
| if something is not extinct, it is called | extant |
| what rock type do fossils form in | sedimentary |
| what are the two types of dating that scientists use | relative and radioactive |
| relative dating | where you figure out the age of a fossil determined by the placement of other fossils |
| carbon dating (also called radioactive dating) | where you figure out the exact date of rocks and fossils by determining the half life of the isotopes |
| trilobite | a common type of index fossil |
| index fossil | a type of fossil that is abundant in a variety of areas and it existed for a short time, very useful for relative dating |
| Precambrian time | 88% of earth's history |
| Paleozoic era | Cambrian explosion (animals evolved) ends with mass extinction |
| Mesozoic era | age of dinosaurs, ends with mass extinction |
| Cenozoic era | age of mammals, we are currently in it, and it will end with mass extinction |
| after liquid water was on earth, what life form was common | bacteria and anaerobic prokaryotes |
| Miller and Urey's expiriment | they thought that by mixing compounds for life that they could make them into simpler compounds that were found on primitive earth, however they only made amino acids |
| take a look at the endosymbiotic theory | DID U LOOK AT IT? |
| fitness/sucess | if you survive long enough to reproduce and your children survive long enough to reproduce |
| anatomical adaptation | a part on or in the body that aids in survival |
| physiological adaptation | an internal reaction (chemicals) to aid in survival (like venom) |
| behavioral adaptation | a behavior or social cue that aids in survival |
| Lyell and Hutton | they found that the earth is millions, not thousands, of years old |
| name the three main points in Darwin's argument | earth changes therefore life changes it takes deep time for life to change earth IS OLD |
| name the three main points in Lamark's argument | life changes over time organisms adapt to environments all species form from other species |
| what is selective use and dissuse | Lamark came up with the idea and said that if an organism has to use something more, it will adapt within it's lifetime and it will pass the new trait onto it's offspring |
| Malthus | said if the population contd' to grow, we would eventually run out of resources |
| who sent an essay to Darwin who had similar findings | Wallace |
| when and what was the book called that Darwin published | 1859, was called "On the Origin of Species" |
| what were the two animals that Darwin focused on, and where | tortises and finches and in the Galápagos islands off the coast of Ecuador |
| scientific theory | an explanation of a natural phenomena backed by evidence |
| what were Darwin's observations when he was on his voyage | he noticed that there were many different variations of the same species on the different islands, and proposed the theory that they had all came from the same origin species |
| when and in what ship did Darwin make his voyage | 1831, H.M.S. Beagle |
| scientists have identified how many species, and how many species are left to be identified | 1.5 mil identified, 2-100 mil left to be identified |
| taxonomy | classification of organisms+ given universally accepted name (in Latin) |
| binomial nomenclature (and who invented it) | two-part name for classification, invented by Carolus Linneaus) |
| what are the levels of classification | kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species (remember kings play cards on five green stools) |
| phylogeny | study of evolutionary relationships between organisms |
| evolutionary classification | organizing groups based on evolutionary history (used because sometimes organisms that look similar don't have a common ancestor) |
| cladogram | like a tree diagram |
| derived characters | located in newer generations in cladogram but not in older generations |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of bacteria | bacteria, eubacteria, prokaryote, cell walls w/peptoglycan, unicellular, autotroph or heterotroph, strep, e. coli |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of archea | archea, archaebacteria, prokaryote, cell walls without peptoglycan, unicellular, autotroph or heterotroph, methanogens, halophiles |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of protists | eukarya, protista, cell walls of cellulose in some; some have chloroplasts, most unicellular and some multicellular, autotroph or heterotroph, ameoba |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of fungi | eukarya, fungi, eukaryote, cell walls of chitin, most multicelluar, some unicelluar, heterotroph, mushroom |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of plants | eukarya, cell walls of cellulose, chloroplasts, multicellular, autotroph, mosses, ferns trees |
| what is the domain, kingdom, cell type, cell structure, number of cells, mode of nutrition and examples of animals | eukarya, eukaryote, no cell walls or chloroplasts, multicellular, heterotroph, mammals |
| what are four important characteristics of a population | -geographic distribution -population -growth rate -age structure |
| what are three factors that affect population size | -number of births -number of deaths -number of individuals moving in/out of the population |
| natality | birth rate |
| logistical growth | s curve |
| exponential growth | j curve |
| what is rate strategy (also known as r strategy) | used in smaller animals with shorter lifespans and produces many offspring |
| what is carrying capacity strategy (also k-strategy | used in larger animals with longer lifespans and produces fewer offspring |
| dispersal | movement of organisms away from the parent organism |
| limiting factor | what causes the population to decrease and not continue to grow exponentially |
| what are 4 density dependent factors (depend on population size) | competition predation parasitism disease |
| when do density dependent factors happen | when a population reaches a certain level (affects large and dense populations more than small and sparse) |
| density independent factors (DONT depend on population size) | unusual weather natural disasters seasonal cycles certain human activities |
| when did the human population growth start to increase exponentially | 500 years ago during the 1st industrial revolution |
| demography | study of human populations |
| look at demographic transition graphs and age structure diagrams | did u? :) |
| population growth depends highly on what | age distribution |
| population | a group of animals that can interbreed |
| what is a grid that you put over a small population to count it called | quadrat |
| when a population increases by a constant factor at constant time intervals, it expiriences what type of growth? | logistical growth |
| what kind of population growth is characterized by a repeating cycle of rapid increase in size followed by rapid decline | boom and bust cycles |
| competition between members of the same species | intraspecific |
| competition between members of different species | interspecific |
| Hardy-Weinburg principle | states that two species cannot occupy the same niche indefinitely without competition driving one into extinction |
| phenotype is based on ____ and _____ | genotype and environmental factors |
| What is the syndrome where the genotype is X | Turner's syndrome |
| What is the syndrome where the genotype is XXY | Kleintifelter's syndrome |
| polyiplody | where chromosomes dont seperate properly, resulting in genetic disorders |
| Gregor Mendel | he found basic inheritance by breeding pea plants |
| Charles Darwin | theory of evolution and natural selection |
| Medelian Inheritance | basic inheritance, dominant and recessive allele |
| incomplete dominance | where the offspring is an inbetween of the two traits |
| codominance | where both traits are expressed at the same time |
| multiple alleles | where a single gene affects multiple traits, like melanin |
| polygenic traits | a trait controlled by two or more genes |
| epestasis | where there is a gene that is dominant over another gene, thus making it not appear |
| karyotype | a map of all of a persons chromosomes |
| nondisjunction | where the chromatids do not seperate correctly during cell division |
| sex-linked inheritance | something that is inherited from the sex chromosomes |
| trisomy 21 | Down Syndrome, causes various mental and physical disabilities |
| two genes responsible for blood type | ABO and RH |
| what is ABO | it determines whether u have A, B, or O, A and B are codominant, and O is recessive |
| what is RH | it determines whether u are positive or negative, + dominant over - |
| agglutination | a product of agglutination, your red blood cells rupture and u die |
| universal donor | O- |
| universal receiver | AB+ |
| A+ gives to, receives from | gives to A+, AB+, recieves from A+, A-, O+, O- |
| A- gives to, receives from | gives to A+, A-, AB+, AB-, receive from A-, O- |
| B+ gives to, receives from | gives to AB+, B+, receives from B+, B-, O-, O+ |
| B- gives to, receives from | gives to B-, AB-, AB+, receives from B-, O- |
| AB+ gives to, receives from | gives to AB+, receives from everyone |
| AB- gives to, receives from | gives to AB-, AB+, receives from AB-, A-, B-, O- |
| O+ gives to, receives from | gives to O+, A+, AB+, B+, receives from O+, O- |
| O- gives to, receives from | gives to everyone, receives from only O- |
| antibody | attacks foreign substances |
| antigen | the y-shaped proteins on the outside of the red blood cell |
| what antibodies does A blood have | anti-B |
| what antibodies does B blood have | anti-A |
| what antibodies does AB blood have | neither anti a or anti b antibodies |
| what antibodies does O blood have | both anti a and b antibodies |
| LOOK AT PEDIGREE PAGE AND MEMORIZE | DID U DO IT GNG? |
| what is cystic fibrosis and what type of disorder? | it is a defect in the gene that codes for a protein membrane, it causes excessive mucus and respriatory and digestive failure, it is autosomal recessive |
| albinism and what type of disorder? | it is the absence of melanin, and it is autosomal rescessive |
| Tay-Sachs and what type of disorder? | there is no enzyme to break down fatty substances, so it builds up in the brain and spinal cord and causes death by age 5, is common in Ashkenazi Jews (COOKED), recessive autosomal |
| galactosemia and what type of disorder? | your body doesnt have the enzyme to break down galactose, so it builds up in your liver and kidneys and can cause those organs to fail, autosomal recessive |
| What is Huningtons disease and what kind of disease is it | it is dominant autosomal, and it affects the neurodevelopment where you regress back to a newborn |
| What is achrondoplasia and what kind of disease is it | it is dominant autosomal, and you are a dwarf |
| Hemophilia and what kind of disease is it | it affects your ablitiy to clot blood, is sex linked |
| Sickle cell disease and what kind of disease is it | it is common in those of african descent, it prevents malaria and causes your red blood cells to be in a sickle shape, and it is CODOMINANT |
| Color blindness and what kind of disease is it | u cant see colors (no shizz sherlock) and it is sex linked |
| look at gel electophoresis page | did u do it if not u will fail ;) |
| selective breeding | when you breed things for certain traits |
| hybridization | the taking of two genetically dissimilar organisms and creating a hybrid with good traits from each organism, often heartier |
| can hybrids breed? | no |
| inbreeding | when you breed two closely related organisms together and they have a high prevalence of good and bad traits being passed down |
| 4 steps of DNA manipulation | 1.extract 2.make copies 3.cut 4.identify |
| extract | you open the cells and take the DNA out |
| make copies | you take PCR (polymerase chain reaction) with the help of enzymes from hot springs and you make copies of the DNA so it is easier to study |
| cut | you use Restriction Enzymes to cut out parts of the DNA that you want to study and it creates sticky ends that are complementary single strands of DNA |
| identify | at this point, you can identify the sequences in the DNA you are studying |
| what charge does DNA have? | negative |
| cell transformation | it is when you take foreign DNA and put it into a cell's plasmid |
| what is a plasmid | plasmids are circular parts of a cell, often found in bacteria, that carry genetic markers that help us identify it |
| transgenic orgaisms | contains genes from other species |
| transgenic animals | help with the food supply and medical experiments, examples include mice, chickens, glow fish and glow cats |
| transgenic plants | they help the food supply, can grow faster and healthier, ex; corn and soybeans |
| transgenic microrganisms | transgenic bacteria can make important medical substances such as human insulin, growth factor and clotting factor |
| cloning | when you make a genetic copy of another organism |
| steps of cloning | 1. you take the nucleus of a cell from the donor mother 2. nucleus of donor goes into cell of foster mother 3. the embryo is created in a lab 4. the embryo is taken into the foster mother to grow 5. the foster mother births the clone |
| genomics | study of an orgaisms' genome |
| what percent of DNA codes for proteins | less than 2% |
| SNPs | Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (creates different traits and genetic diversity) |
| ORFs | Open Reading Frames; have at least 100 codons with a start and stop, and they help us identify genes |
| protenomics | the study of the structure and function of proteins |
| bioinformatics | creating and maintaining databases of genetic info |
| haplotypes | regions of linked variations in the human genome |
| pharmacogenomics | the study of how genetic inheritance affects medicine tolerance, can help doctors come up with dosing that will help patients the most with their unique genes |
| gene therapy | where you take the gene that is causing a disease and try to get rid of it to get rid of the disease |
| bioethics | the study of ethical, legal, and social issues in bio-medicine and research |
| CRISPR | takes gRNA and can change DNA inside of people using Cas9 enzymes |
| HapMaps | involves identifying SNPs and their affects |
| what is a popular restriction enzyme | ECOR1 |
| recombinant DNA | the DNA that is inserted into a different organism |
| DNA fingerprinting | where you study the repeats in DNA of people because everyone has different repeats |
| what were the five parts of Darwin's evidence | 1. fossil record 2. geographical distribution (plate tectonics) 3. homologous structures 4. embryology 5. biochemistry |
| what is an archeopetrix | the intermediate animal between dinosaurs and birds |
| what are homologous structures | organisms with different mature forms but same embryo |
| embryology | similarities in early development between certain organism |
| vestigial organs | when an organism doesn't need a body part anymore but it is still there |
| descent with modification | all organisms living on earth today have descended from a different organism |
| macroevolution | evolution above the species line |
| adaptive radiation | when one species develops into several different |
| convergent evolution | when different organisms undergo adaptive radiation in similar environments (results in analogous structures) |
| analogous structures | when organisms in the wild have similar characteristics because they were in similar environments |
| coevolution | two organisms that interact in the wild together evolve tog |
| punctuated equilibrium | a type of evolution theory that states that evolution is marked by points of equillibrium and then points of rapid change |
| gradualism | the idea that evolution happens slow and steady |
| gene pool | all the genes that exist in a different population |
| relative frequency | the number of times an allele occurs in a gene pool |
| evolution is when | the relative frequency is changed |
| genetic drift | random change in allele frequency |
| founder affect | genetic drift caused by migration |
| bottleneck | population decreases significantly then rebounds |
| gene flow | increases genetic variation |
| non-random mating | promotes inbreeding and changes allele proportions |
| draw a picture of directional slection | it should look like an original curve that is slightly offset from the new curve |
| draw a picture of stabilizing selection | it should look like a curve that goes up in the middle and the outliers have been removed |
| draw a picture of disruptive selection | it looks like two humps at the opposite sides of the spectrum |
| hardy Weinberg principle | allele frequency remains constant in a population unless one or more factors change |
| genetic equillibrium | genetic equillibrium |
| according to the Hardy-Weinburg prinicpal, what 5 conditions must be met to not have evolution | 1. random mating 2. large population 3.no movement in or out of a population 4. no mutations 5. no natural selection |
| speciation | the development of a new species |
| species | a group that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
| four factors involved in speciation | 1 reproductive isolation 2 behavioral isolation 3 geographic isolation 4 temporal isolation |
| what are A and B on the speciation graph | over reproduction that then results in environmental limits because there are too many babies |
| what are C and D on the speciation graph | competition because of the overpopulation and lack of food, shelter, etc;... and then the evolution starts to happen because you have animals that have different traits to begin with (mutations and natural variation) |
| what are E and F on the speciation graph (that lead to G which is speciation | natural selection based on the difference in traits and also due to a changing environment leads ultimately to G which is speciation!!!! |
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I'mtheAlpha