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H Anatomy Exam prep
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Physiology | Definition: the study of how the body and its organs function. -Examples: How the heart pumps blood How muscles contract How the lungs exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide |
| Functions of Integumentary system | Protection Temperature regulation Prevents water loss |
| Organs in Integumentary system | Skin Hair Nails Sweat glands |
| Functions of Muscular system | -Movement -Heat production - maintaining Posture |
| Organs in Muscular system | Skeletal muscles Tendons |
| Functions of Skeletal System | Support Protection Blood cell formation Mineral storage |
| Organs of Skeletal System | -Bones -Cartilage -Ligaments |
| Functions of the Urinary system | -Removes wastes Maintains water/pH balance |
| Orangs of the Urinary system | Kidneys Ureters Bladder Urethra |
| Functions of Cardiovascular system | Transport blood, oxygen, nutrients |
| Organs of Cardiovascular/Circulatory system | Heart Blood vessels |
| functions of Nervous system | -Fast communication and muscle control |
| Organs of Nervous system | Brain Spinal cord Nerves |
| Functions of Endocrine system | Hormone regulation |
| Organs of Endocrine system | Pituitary Thyroid Adrenal glands Pancreas |
| Organs of Digestive system | Mouth Esophagus Stomach Intestines Liver Pancreas |
| Functions of Lymphatic (Immune) system | -Defense against disease - Move fluids around body |
| Organs of Lymphatic (Immune) system | Lymph nodes Spleen Thymus Lymph vessels |
| Functions of Respiratory system | -Gas exchange |
| Organs of Respiratory system | Nose Trachea Lungs Bronchi |
| What is Cephalic? | head |
| What is Cervical? | neck |
| What is Thoracic? | chest |
| What is Abdominal? | abdomen |
| What is Pelvic? | pelvis |
| What is Femoral ? | thigh |
| What is Crural ? | leg |
| What is Antebrachial ? | forearm |
| Superior | above |
| Inferior | below |
| Anterior | front |
| Posterior | back |
| Medial | toward midline |
| Lateral | away from midline |
| Proximal | Closer to the point of attachment |
| Distal | Farther from the point of attachment |
| Superficial | toward surface |
| Deep | away from surface |
| Homeostasis | -Maintenance of a stable internal environment. - Ex: Body tempature regulation |
| Sagittal | splitting the body into left/right |
| Midsagittal | EQUALLY splittting the body into left and right -it is different from just saggital due to how left and right MUST BE EQUALLY SPLIT |
| Frontal (coronal) | a body cut that splits body into front and back |
| Transverse | a body cut that splits body into top and bottom |
| Oblique | a body cut that splits diagonally |
| Anatomical Position | Standing upright Feet forward Arms at side Palms facing forward |
| Metabolism | -All chemical reactions in the body. -includes: Catabolism = breaking down molecules Anabolism = building up molecules |
| What are the components of connective tissue? | -Cells -Protein fibers -ground substance -Ground substance |
| What are the functions of receptors and where are they located on a cell? | - receptors receive signals and are located on the cell membrane |
| Dehydration synthesis | -a chemical reaction that removes water to form bonds and build molecules |
| Hydrolysis | a chemical reaction that adds water to break bonds and break down molecules |
| Element | One type of atom |
| Compound | -Two or more elements that are chemically combined |
| What is the monomer and polymer of Carbohydrates | -monomer: Monosaccharide -polymer: polysaccharide |
| What is the monomer and polymer of Proteins | -monomer: Protein -polymer: polypeptide |
| What is the monomer and polymer of Lipids | -monomer:Fatty acids and glycerol - polymer: Triglyceride |
| What is the monomer and polymer of Nucleic Acids | -monomer: nucleotides -polymer: RNA and DNA |
| Ionic Bond | -A Bond formed by transfering electrons between two ions |
| Hypertonic | - describes a environment has more solutes and less water compared to another environment |
| Hypotonic | -describes a environment has more water and less solutes compared to another environment |
| Isotonic | -describes a environment that has equal water and solute concentration compared to another environment |
| What organelles are primarily responsible for protein synthesis? And what is the function of each organelle? | - Nucleus (contains DNA that is used to make proteins -Ribosomes (builds proteins) -Rough ER ( modifies proteins) -Golgi apparutus (packages proteins so they can move around cell) |
| Fibroblast | - a cell that helps maintain the structure of the cell due to how it makes connective tissue fibers that make up the cell -it makes the protein collagen |
| Cell Junctions | Specialized connections between cells that provide attachment, protection, and communication. |
| Tight junctions | junctions that Seals cells next to each other together tightly together to prevent substances from leaking between them. |
| Desmosomes | -Strong anchoring junctions that hold cells together and resist mechanical stress. |
| Gap junctions | Protein channels that allow direct communication and exchange of ions/small molecules between cells. |
| Passive transport | Movement of substances across the membrane without using cellular energy (ATP), - moves substances from high concentration to low concentration (Down the concentration gradient) -Ex: A oxygen cell does diffusion across memebrane |
| Active transport | Movement of substances across the membrane using cellular energy (ATP), moves substances from low concentration to high concentration (against the concentration gradient) |
| ATP (adenosine triphosphate) | The cell’s main energy-carrying molecule -ATP is mainly produced during cellular respiration, especially in the mitochondria. |
| Stages of Cellular Respiration | -Glycolysis — occurs in cytoplasm -Krebs cycle — occurs in mitochondria -Electron transport chain — inner mitochondrial membrane |
| Transcription | -a process in which genetic information is copied from DNA into mRNA -occurs in the DNA -occurs in the Nucleus |
| Translation | -A process in which RNA is used to make a protein -occurs in the cytoplasm -involves ribosomes, amino acids and RNA |
| Functions of Connective tissue | -function: support and protection |
| Types of Connective tissue | Bone, blood, cartilage -Cell: fibroblasts |
| Functions of Epithelial tissue | - cover surfaces (like skin does) |
| Types of Epithelial tissue | - squamous/cuboidal./columnar and simple/stratified/Pseudo-stratified |
| Functions of Muscle tissue | - Contracts to produce movement and release heat |
| Types of Muscle tissue | -Skeletal, smooth, cardiac -Muscle cells:Muscle fibers |
| Functions of Nervous tissue | Conducts electrical signals in order to cause a response in the body |
| Types of Nervous tissue | Brain/spinal/nerves -nerve cells:Neurons |
| Major layers of the skin | -Epidermis, Dermis, and Hypodermis |
| Describe the function and tissues found in Epidermis | -tissue: stratified squamous epithelium -Function: Protection |
| Describe the function and tissues found in Dermis | -tissue:Dense irregular connective tissue -function: provides strength, elasticity, blood supply, and sensation |
| Describe the function and tissues found in Hypodermis | -tissue: Adipose tissue -function: Insulation |
| Describe the major components of the dermis | -Dense irregular connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. |
| Epidermis Layers in order from Superifical to deep | Stratum corneum Stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale |
| Which layer of the Dermis is miotically active? | Stratum basale |
| What happens to the dermis when growth occurs quickly and what is the visible outcome? | -Collagen tears and stretch marks form |
| What protein makes skin waterproof | Keratin |
| Rule of Nines | -a method used to estimate the percentage of body surface area burned in burn victims. - It divides the body into sections that represent multiples of 9% of the body surface area. |
| What are the 4 Skin Glands? | -Sebaceous glands, Eccrine sweat glands, Apocrine sweat glands, and Ceruminous glands |
| Sebaceous glands | - secretes oil -lubricates and waterproofs skin and hair |
| Eccrine sweat glands | -secretes watery sweat that helps cool the body (no odor) -found everywhere in the body |
| Apocrine sweat glands | -secretes thick sweat that is associated with body odor -found in armpits and groin region |
| Ceruminous glands | -secretes earwax -protects the ear from bacteria and also lubricates it |
| Difference between aprocirine and eccrine sweat glands | Eccrine sweat glands Produce watery sweat for cooling the body while Aprocrine sweat glands makes thick sweat glands that cause body order |
| Identify 3 parts of the nail. | -Nail plate(body) -Nail bed -Lunula |
| Nail plate (body) | Visible hard keratin portion of the nail. |
| Nail bed | Skin underneath the nail plate that supports growth. and produces the color seen in nails |
| Lunula | Pale, crescent(moon)-shaped area at the base of the nail where growth begins. |
| 3 typers of bone cells | -Osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts |
| Osteoblasts | bone cells that build bone |
| Osteocytes | bone cells that maintain bone |
| Osteoclasts | bone cells that break down bone |
| Different shapes of bones | Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid |
| Example of long bone | femuar |
| Example of short bone | carpals |
| Example of flat bone | sternum |
| Example of irregular bone | vertebrae |
| Example of Sesamoid bone | patella |
| Bones in Axial Skeleton | Skull Vertebral column Ribs Sternum |
| Bones in Appendicular Skeleton | Limbs Shoulder regiom Pelvic region |
| Ossification | -the process of bone formation -occurs in Growth plates |
| What are the parts of the long bone structures? | shaft/diaphysis -Epiphysis Periosteum -Articular cartilage |
| Diaphysis (shaft) | Long central portion of a long bone. |
| Epiphysis | ends of a long bone. |
| Periosteum | Tough outer connective tissue covering of bone. |
| Articular cartilage | Smooth cartilage covering joint surfaces to reduce friction. |
| What tissue helps to form compact bones? | Osseous tissue |
| What are the 3 parts of the sternum? | -Manubrium Body Xiphoid process |
| What are the steps of repairing a bone fracture? | Hematoma Fibrocartilage callus Bony callus Remodeling |
| Hematoma (repairing a bone fracture) | Blood clot forms at the fracture site. |
| Fibrocartilage callus (repairing a bone fracture) | Soft connective tissue and cartilage fill in the space between the break. |
| Bony callus (repairing a bone fracture) | Spongy bone replaces the soft callus. |
| Remodeling (repairing a bone fracture) | Bone reshapes and strengthens back to normal structure. |
| What bones make up the elbow? | Humerus Radius Ulna |
| The mandible(jaw bone) is responsible for what activity? | Chewing |
| What joint has the greatest range of motion? | Shoulder joint |
| Describe a synovial joint. | Freely movable joint c -contains Synovial fluid and Joint capsule |
| What type of joint is found between flat bones? What are some specific types? | -fibrous joints are found between flat bones -Example: sutures |
| What is a bursae and where is it found? | Fluid-filled sac that reduces friction -found near joints. |
| Flexion | Bending movement that decreases the angle between bones. |
| Extension | Straightening movement that increases the angle between bones. |
| Supination | Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces upward/anteriorly. |
| Pronation | Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces downward/posteriorly. |
| Adduction | Movement toward the body’s midline. |
| Abduction | Movement away from the body’s midline. -think aliens "ABDUCT YOU" = take you away |
| Define the connective tissue layers on skeletal muscles. | Endomysium =tissue around fiber Perimysium = tissue around fascicle Epimysium = tissue around whole muscle |
| Sarcomere | the basic unit of a muscle where contraction occurs. It shortens during muscle contraction. -It is defined by Z lines which hold actin (thin) filaments in place |
| Actin (thin filaments) | -Protein filaments that slide over myosin during muscle contraction; -known as thin filament |
| Myosin (thick filaments) | - proteins that form cross-bridges with actin to generate force for contraction. -known as thick filament |
| Lactate debt | -When lactic acid builds up in muscles during intense, low-oxygen activity, - a “oxygen debt” is created that must be repaid by -the liver helps adding oxygen back to repay this debt |
| What action does the deltoid do? | Arm abduction |
| Skeletal Muscle Contraction Steps | #1.Nerve impulse #2 Acetylcholine release #3 Action potential #4 Calcium release #5 Actin/myosin cross bridges #6 Sliding filament #7 ATP used #8 Relaxation |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | A neurotransmitter released by motor neurons that triggers a muscle fiber to start an electrical signal for contraction. |
| Action potential | A electrical impulse that travels along the muscle cell to cause muscle contraction. |
| Sliding filament model | The process where actin (thin) and myosin (thick) filaments slide past each other to cause muscle contractions |
| Cross-bridges | attachments formed when myosin heads bind to actin filaments, allowing muscle contraction to occur. |
| Biceps vs Triceps | Biceps brachii: Front upper arm which flexes elbow Triceps brachii: Back upper arm which Extends elbow |
| What muscle is used for quiet breathing? | Diaphragm |
| What muscle is used for deep breathing? | Intercostals |
| What are the major muscles on the back? | Trapezius Latissimus dorsi Rhomboids |
| What is muscle fatigue? | Reduced ability to contract due to low ATP levels or lactic acid buildup. |
| What is the difference between the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) | - Central nervous system: made up of just brain and spinal cord - Peripheral Nervous sytem: made up of all the other nerves outside of the central nervous sytem |
| How is the Perhieral Nervous system help Central nervous system | it connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body and carries signals to and from muscles, organs, and glands. |
| Internal Sensory Receptors | -Sensory receptors that monitor conditions inside the body to help maintain homeostasis. -Examples: Baroreceptors, chemoreceptors and Stretch recpors |
| What are the two subcategories of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous sytem |
| Somatic nervous system | Controls voluntary movements and carries sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints to the central nervous. |
| Autonomic nervous system | – Controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and gland activity. -Think autonomic= automatic (involuntary) |
| What region of the spine would contain intercostal nerves? | the Thoracic region |
| What is the function and location of the diencephalon? | -function: to relay sensory signals to maintain homeostatis -located in the brainstem |
| What are the parts of the diencephalon? | Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus |
| What part of the brain connects the left and right hemispheres? | Corpus callosum |
| 3 Neuron Shapes | Multipolar neurons – Have one axon and many dendrites (most common) Bipolar neurons – Have one axon and one dendrite Unipolar neurons – Have one process that splits into two branches |
| What happens at a synapse? | a nerve signal is transmitted from one neuron to another (or to a muscle/gland) using chemicals called neurotransmitters. |
| Schwann Cells vs Oligodendrocytes | -Schwann Cells-Form the myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system -Oligodendrocytes Form the myelin sheath in the central nervous system; |
| Depolarization | The process where a neuron’s membrane becomes less negative as sodium (Na⁺) ions enter, triggering an action potential. |
| Nodes of Ranvier | Small gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon where nerve impulses speed up, thus also speeding up signal transmission. |
| Axon | Long part of a neuron that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body. |
| Dendrite | Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals and carry them toward the cell body. |
| What allows for rapid conduction of a nerve impulse? | -the myelin sheath |
| Major cranial nerves | Olfactory Optic Vestibulocochlear Vagus = |
| Sensory (afferent) pathway | Carries information toward the central nervous - Receptors in skin/organs detect stimuli |
| Motor (efferent) pathway | Carries information away from the central nervous -controls muscles and glands |
| Neuroglia | -Support and protect neurons. |
| Meninges | - protects central nervous system - |
| Meninges layers in order from superficial to deep? | #1 Dura mater #2 Arachnoid mater #3 Pia mater |
| Types of sensory receptors in the skin: | -Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and Nociceptors - located in the dermis |
| Mechanoreceptors | detect touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch |
| Thermoreceptors | detect temperature changes (heat and cold) |
| Nociceptors | detect pain |
| Where do you find the hearing receptors? | -Hearing receptors are found in the cochlea of the inner ear, specifically in the organ of Corti, where hair cells convert sound vibrations into nerve signals. |
| What is the most common treatment for hearing loss? | The most common treatment for hearing loss is hearing aids, which amplify sound to help improve hearing. |
| Where do you find the main concentration of vision receptors in the eye? | The main concentration of vision receptors is in the retina -The highest concentration of cone receptors is in the fovea centralis |
| Explain the passage of light from outside the eye to the retina. | Cornea-> Aqueuous humor-> Pupil-> Lens-> Vitreous humor-> Retina |
| Where do you find the olfactory receptors? | found in the olfactory epithelium, which is located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. |
| what category of receptor are olfactory receptors? | They are chemoreceptors, meaning they detect chemical molecules in the air |
| Where are your taste buds located? | Taste buds are found mainly on the tongue, throat (phyrax), soft palate and epiglottis |
| Where is the largest percentages of taste buds located? | tongue papillae |
| What is the purpose of cataract surgery | To restore clear vision by removing a clouded lens (cataract) that blocks or blurs light entering the eye. |
| What is surgically removed during cataract surgery? | -The cloudy natural lens of the eye |
| Brachial | arm |
| Patellar | kneecap |
| Carpal | wrist |
| Catabolism | -metabolism that breaks down molecules |
| Anabolism | -metabolism that builds up molecules |
Created by:
KenechukwuIE