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HIST 250 FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Allotment | “friends of the Indian”, “Kill the Indian and Save the Man”, the “magic” of private property- trying to individualize Natives, Mixed bloods sometimes more willing to do this for their own advantage, Mix of tradition & innovation, “Excess land” for sale |
| General Allotment Act (Dawes Severalty Act) | 1887-Break up land to individuals, extent/limits of federal power, excludes 5 civilized tribes initially, adaptation to farming/ranching,no breaking up communal patterns,diversity of responses-some took advantage to protect land/resources from gov |
| Presbyterians & Allotment | Board of foreign missions, women’s BFM (debate over allotment’s effectiveness, little sense that Native ways were good or equal in their own right) |
| Adults & Assimilation through Education | Board of Indian Commissioners (1880) wanted to “civilize” Natives 1st tried to assimilate adults Capt. Richard Henry Pratt’s program of civilization on POWS in Ft. Marion Many adults resisted assimilation so Pratt & the gov turned to children |
| Boarding Schools initially | 1879: Pratt opens the first off-reservation boarding school in Carlisle, PA 24 more boarding schools open in the next 23 years Focus on discipline, regimen, goals, curriculum |
| Boarding school Stats | 1900: gov runs 25 off-reservation boarding schools, 81 reservation boarding schools, 147 reservation day schools, & funds 32 other private schools Religious groups run another 22 schools |
| Mandatory Attendance & Boarding Schools #1 | 1891:Congress authorized the commissioner of Indian affairs to “make & enforce by proper means” rules & regulations to ensure Indian children of suitable age attended schools established for them |
| Mandatory Attendance & Boarding Schools #2 | 1893: Congress authorized the Indian office to withhold rations & annuities from parents who refused to send their children to school |
| Boarding Schools & Their Impact on Family Ties | Severed ties to home/family by isolating children in institutions where they were neglected,abused,exploited,Off-rez boarding schools preferred-isolate children from “contaminating influences”, "Our purpose is to change them forever” |
| Boarding Schools & Assimilation | Anglo-American names given to them, hair was cut (symbol of mourning in their culture) uniforms worn, diseases & death at schools (trachoma & tuberculosis),Punishment for those caught speaking Native languages (some parents stop teaching their kids) |
| Resistance to Boarding Schools & Assimilation | Students found ways around this by signing , “I never forgot my people”, subtle resistance like Luther Standing Bear who outwardly lived the life of a white man but kept the language and traditions (refusal to lose culture) |
| Education & Assimilation Recap | “Friends of the Indian”-sharing civilization w/ those who “did not have it",Families didn’t know if children were going to school/if they were killed b/c they didn’t see them for so long, Even after returning rez life hadn’t changed so they didn’t fit in |
| The Indian New Deal | Assimilation policy 1860s-1920s Indigenous Assessments: goal was to reinvigorate tribal self-government but imposed unfamiliar structures on them (some tribes oppose this) |
| Meriam Report | 1928, the problem of Indian Administration called for reform |
| Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) | 1934:helped end allotment-land held in trust,tribes could purchase/have limited recovery of land,tribal gov reforms-written constitutions/elected councils,end assimilation-religious freedom,social/economic programs-New Deal initiatives/jobs/partial relief |
| Adaptations & Pragmatic Choices | Sports teams, bands, driving motorcars, going to movies & still being Native Using new materials gained in trade to make products Pragmatic choices to maintain aspects of culture (Buffalo Bill shows, joining the army to continue their warrior culture) |
| Society of American Indians (SAI) | 1911: Columbus, OH, many Native members who lobbied for citizenship, improved healthcare on the reservation, special court for their claims, & other reform issues |
| Citizenship & War | Fighting in WWII is seen by Natives as their evidence of “assimilation” & preparedness for citizenship Iroquois confederacy declared war on Germany as their own independent Nation Indian Citizenship Act (1924): extends citizenship & suffrage to Natives |
| Rejection of IRA | 78 tribes reject b/c they view it as a threat ot treaty rights Navajo communities rebuilt around sheep & herding to assimilate but livestock reduction programs initiated by the gov to limit production & raise prices=economically & emotionally devastating |
| Relocation | Traveling to cities to work, after WWII (moving to cities to work for war-related industries), Tendency to concentrate in certain areas |
| Termination | 1950s-60s: federal policy turns back to assimilation, aimed to dismantle tribal governments, dissolve tribal landholdings, & end federal services to Natives (“end” the tribes as sovereign dependent nations),Negative deptictions of Natives in pop-Culture |
| Era following Termination & Relocation policies | More Pan-Indian in 1960s, Red Power Movement: similar to Black Panthers, Hippie counterculture: “noble savage” sensibilities, imitating Natives, Changing views of Natives in media, taking ownership of some stereotypes of playing to stereotypes in movies |
| Indian Militancy in the 1960s | “Indian of All Tribes” doc, gets people to think about policies through humor & irony, Power & self-determination, changed context compared to allotment & termination eras, resurgence of noble savage idea of playing Indian in the larger American culture |
| Why more reform in the 1960s? | Turmoil in the larger culture in the 1960s helped to create a mood for reform (Vietnam War, hippies, Civil Rights movement) |
| Wounded Knee Occupation Militancy & Causes | Differnce btwn younger & older Natives fighting for their rights (more vocal & militant), escalating conflict on Pine Ridge Reservation (1972-1973) b/c Dick Wilson’s BIA funded GOONs (Guardians of the Oglala Nation) asserted his power |
| AIM | American Indian Movement, promotion of culture that assimilation was supposed to eliminate, some believe AIM brought renewed hope & pride across Indian country & struck a powerful blow for their sovereignty |
| Diplomacy in the 1960s | Roots in past, International Indian Treaty Council created June 1974 when 5000 reps from 90+ Indigenous nations in N& S America met @ Standing Rock Sioux Rez & released a declaration of continuing independence 2 assert treaty rights & sovereignty globally |
| Tensions & Change | Tensions between tradition & modernity, indigenous & American, adaptation & resistance |
| Casinos | 1970s-80s, Economic opportunities Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA): compromise between tribal sovereignty & state rights, 1988 Ability to control their own rights & lives rather than relying on the government |
| Education & Health on Reservations | Tribal colleges to preserve traditions, funding from economics like casinos, Long term improvements in health but widening gaps between Natives & Average americans for obesity, violence, substance abuse, & suicide |
| Wounded Knee Occupation & Goals | Lakota opponents of Wilson, including traditionalists & elders, turned to AIM in hopes of getting help, Seized/held Wounded Knee for over 2 months (wanted the removal of Wilson & a review of corruption & treaty rights) Standoff w/ US Marshalls, FBI |
| Deeper Meaning of Wounded Knee | Reconnection to knowledge & tradition Turning point in Native history, shows the world what was going on & giving them a voice Tribal schools & reconnection w/ language, tradition, religion About identity & fighting for survival |
| Popular Culture | Less “savage” portrayals, telling of their own stories/communities “By us, for us” Contemporary stories (not just about the past) Portray them as people with feelings |
| Conclusions on Reservation Life & Pop Culture in the 1970s-1980s | self determination includes the means to tell your own stories on your own terms, new kinds of opportunity, cultural flourishing, & ongoing problems(legacy of conquest & forced assimilation) problems typically=variations of national trends but worse |
| Indian Child Welfare Act | 1978: renounced transfer of kids to non-Indians, can’t be removed w/out duly notified,should be placed w/ extended family/tribal members/other Natives,tribal courts=utmost authority-major step,stemming removal, adoption rates high,rights not guaranteed |
| NAGPRA | Native American Graves Protection & Repatriation Act (1990) requires all federally funded institutions to share the lists of their Native artificats with the tribes & return the items they request, signed by George HW Bush |
| Native American Languages Act | 1990: permitted the use of Native languages as a way of instruction in schools & affirmed the right of Native children o express themselves, be educated, & be assessed in their own language |
| Example of Tradition & Modernity in Health on Reservations | Combining new health practices & traditional methods |
| Violence Against Women Act | 1994, expanded in 2005, the reauthorization act allowed tribal courts to prosecute certain non-Indian sex offenders in certain categories of crimes |
| New relationships with the Federal Government in the late 1900s | Paternalism to partnership?, Pieces of sovereignty (rights guaranteed by treaties-taxes, policing, courts), Court decisions, Federal obligations, Religious Freedom,land return/compensation, Self-determination (new frameworks), Opposition & pushback |
| Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 | right to practice traditions (some limitations) |
| Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe | 1978:Limited jurisdiction of tribal courts over non-Natives,racist & ethnocentric “evidence”, ignorance of different traditions(dismisses their system rather than figuring out how it works, using past contexts no longer relevant)"They gave up sovereignty” |
| Economic Development-Navajo Nation Pros | Roads, schools, electrification, housing, sovereignty & control over natural resources |
| Economic Development-Navajo Nation Cons | Limited jobs,economic fluctuations (fragile economy base),poor agreements w/ corps=revenues not as good as hoped,environmental/health concerns(land/H2O pollution,radiation=lung cancer/respiratory disease), Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill |
| Church Rock Mill Spill | (1979)-social impact, displacement |
| Council of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT) | Collaboration for more control over natural resources, 1975 |
| 1970s & Self-Determination | Following 1970, Natives began to be more self-determining Nixon’s presidency Indian Self-Determination & Education Assistance Act of 1975 Court cases opened/closed determination (MT v. US, Duro v. Reina, CA v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians) |
| Montana v. US | 1981: no tribal jurisdiction of non-Natives for civil cases |
| Duro v. Reina | 1990: tribes lack jurisdiction over non-member Indians (overturned by Durofix a year later) |
| California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians | 1987, upheld the right of tribes to operate gaming on tribal land. Sates cannot prohibit gaming on reservations, strengthened tribal sovereignty & paved the way for the multibillion-dollar tribal gaming industry |
| Opening/Closing Self-Determination | Executive orders, white house tribal nations conferences, tribal law & order act of 2010, Memorandum (2021) on tribal consultation & strengthening nation-to-nation relationships Deb Haaland (Laguna Pueblo) as secretary of interior in 2021 |
| Indian Self-Determination & Assistance Act | 1975: tribes pressed for more autonomy in administering programs & services formerly administered by the BIA |
| Early Census Reports & Low Native Populations? | Early census reports impacted by people passing off as white because they didn’t want to be discriminated against if they were found to be Native Later more ownership & pride in Identity |
| Survivance | opposition to “victimry”, not just being defined by victimhood Resistance, survival, endurance, ongoing presence, self-definition, creativity, resilience, “we are still here” |
| Limited nation | People seen as in or out (identified citizenship), limited by finite geographical boundaries & membership |
| Imagined Nation | Common shared cultural experiences but you don’t know everyone in the community, Most members don’t know everyone personally but have a sense of community |
| Sovereign Nation | Controlled & enforced boundaries of who is in or out, sovereignty controls these boundaries |
| Real Nation | Ethnicity vs. citizens having basic values |
| Dual Citizenship | Tribal & national citizenship,“Liquid identities”-constantly shifting, Blood quantum (%s), |
| Cherokee Controversy | Post Civil War Treaty of 1866, history of denied rights, Cherokees amend constitution in 2007, 2017 ruling states that the 2007 amendment violated the treaty of 1866 Cherokee Supreme Court removed descendant “by blood” in 2021 for descendants of freedmen |
| Blood Quantum & Issues | Natives who aren’t a certain blood quantum can’t be members of a tribe even if they follow the same customs and languages Eventually blood quantum will be so diluted that there will be no “official” Natives |
| Indian boarding schools & their negative impact on language | Dying of culture Immersion schools on reservations to teach native languages & save culture Language, culture, & traditions helped some Natives survive boarding school experiences of loneliness & harsh treatment |
| Horses & Symbolism | Horse=still important, a connection to tradition & land |
| Larger Context of Powwows | Political recognition, National Museum of the American Indian (2004), Demographic trends (Native & partly Native populations rising), Nations w/in a nation,environmental issues,Recognition of global indigenous peoples,White man’s indian/playing Indian |
| Spread of Powwows | Algonquian word for healer, “he dreams”, curing ritual/ceremony, Euro-American usage-early 1800s, Deep roots (pre-contact), Emergence 1880s, Heluska Grass dance & drum songs, primarily in warrior societies but spread & passed on to other tribes as gifts |
| Assimilation & Powwows | Assimilation era tried to ban them:traditions repressed,underground practicing of powwows like on the 4th of July or in Buffalo Bill shows, Revival & change during WWs, homecoming dances for veterans, automobiles aid spread post WWI, relocation after WWII |
| Southern Powwows | Emerged in W Oklahoma, drew on Ponka, Omaha, Kiowa, Comanche traditions, men’s grass dance & women’s cloth dance, low pitch songs |
| Northern Powwows | Drum songs (characteristic of the area), Lakota, Dakota, Sioux, Blackfeet, men’s & women’s dances, higher pitched singing, different drum accents in verse, women can drum |
| Powwows Commonalities | Hybrid/mix of traditions: bells on women’s dresses imply prayers & wishes, fancy dances, grass dances, singing around drums |
| Competition vs. Traditional | Prize money, standardized dance/music categories vs. prizes & competition (smaller) but less so |
| Powwows: Pan-Indian identities & local traditions | Shared space/expectations/tribal practices-common etiquette,dances,singing/drumming & also unique aspects),jingle dresses OG w/ Ojibwe (healing cones 4 a man’s daughter), regalia, eagle feathers, characteristic sounds,songs reflect family tradition |
| Public Powwows | Emcees play more of a role to describe & teach non-Natives about culture, public fairgrounds/colleges/arenas/venues/casinos/cultural centers,bridges & understanding,authentic but commercial-Native & non-Native merchants can make money |
| Private Powwows | Homecomings,memorials,emcee speaks more in Native language,more flexible time-clock vs. Native,honoring veterans who protected them as warriors-tradition & modernity,gifts w/in the community-acknowledgement/reciprocity, less performative,more communal |
| Powwows-Other Aspects | Drum groups have reps & histories, Native dancers fulfill personal vows (honor elders) Concerns that regalia circulation will make things less authentic & that prizes & competition will make it more about that than the true purpose |
| Powwow Origination (1800s) | HoChunk (Winnebagos) in Heluska Warrior-Society in Omaha in the 1860s gave the grass dance, Ojibwe drum religion (1880s), HoChunk powwow in 1908 that developed into an annual tradition |
| Powwows Early Audiences & Evolution of Purpose | Early hostility of white audiences at powwows, warrior tradition & powwows to raise money for soldiers, show business & local culture |
| Survivance & Powwows | Aspects of both American & Native events 100s of powwows annually (maybe even more small local ones), traditions adapt & create, powwows as “home” especially for the more local private ones (community motivated) |
| Stereotypes & Natives | Some people don’t believe Natives can be Natives if they don’t follow the stereotypical Native life, even if their cutures have changed & evolved over time, some “play Indian” to do so while others think this is bad as it plays into stereotypes |
| Stereotypes & Mascots | Teams with stereotypical Native mascots & names began changing them in 2005 |
| Native Americans & triple citizenship | Subject to state/federal/tribal, or to local & state off-rez,nation-states try to reduce them to the status of ethnic minorities & individuals rather than deal w/ them as nations w/ rights, struggles w/ sovereignty(state interference, gov undermining) |
| Tribes & Sovereign Programs | Many tribes have legislatures, courts, police forces, businesses, schools, health facilities, social services, environmental agencies, cultural centers, & language programs) Some tribes give out their own license plates |
| Lacrosse & Independent Nations | 1987: International Lacrosse Federation recognized Iroquois tribe as their own independence nation Iroquois Haudenosaunee Nationals Lacrosse team travels abroad using their own passports |
| Tribes & Managing their Own Lives | Tribal flags w/ symbols,Navajo Peacemaking courts aim towards reconciliation, Protection of lands/sacred spaces, managing resources,preserving traditions,building economies,educating kids,defending status as nations w/ in a nation |
| Nations w/in a Nation | Operating within the constraints of federal law, collaboration, but also resilience on traditional philosophies, practices, & forms of government as guides to political action in the 21st century |
| Dual Citizenships | Allowed Allowed w/ restrictions Not allowed w/ allowances Not allowed |
| Benefits & risks of dual citizenship | freedom of travel/movement, social service access & ability to vote/run for office in multiple countries (pretty limited), potential for dual taxation, military obligations, expense & waiting many years |
| Lacrosse History | Settle boundary disputes, train warriors, honor the creator, Evolvement into other sports,1st Haudenosaunee Passport (1923), World championships (2010) in Britain: their passports weren’t accepted so they didn’t go |
| Box Lacrosse | Smaller scale compact setting |
| Stickball | Men vs. women (now), used to be used instead of going to war, 2 sticks per player (different styles), tradition connections to assimilation & loss of culture, more informal |
| Lacrosse game that sparked a war (Pontiac’s war) | 1763, Ojibwe and Sauk warriors used a game of lacrosse (or baaga`adowe) as a ruse to capture British-held Fort Michilimackinac in Michigan during Pontiac's War. Players threw the ball inside the open fort gates, rushed in, and used weapons hidden by women |
| Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples-Initial Votes | 2007: general assembly of the UN voted to adopt it, 143 countries in favor, 11 abstained, & 4 (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, & the US) vote against it |
| Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples-Changed Votes | Australia changed its vote to yes in 2009, New Zealand & Canada in 2010 “Hypocrisy” of US for being the land of the free & not giving Native peoples the rights & freedoms they claim to want to uphold US says yes in December 2010 |
| Limits as Nations | Porous boundaries & domestic dependent sovereignty of Native nations & reservations indicate their limits as nations |
| Takeaways for Citizenship & Self-Determination | Takeaways: local-regional, national, & international contexts for citizenship & self-determination, symbolism, identity, & institutional power, tradition & modernity for citizenship & lacrosse |
| “Ecological Indians” | Environmentalism, traditions, sovereignty |
| Background of Ecological Indians | Bakken formation: application of hydraulic fracturing & directional drilling tech caused a boom in oil production since 2000 |
| Bakken Formation & Oil | ND Dept. of Natural Resources estimated overall break-even to be just below $40 a barrel Development=wealth & jobs but ecological concerns (flares release roughly 400 million tons of emissions annually) |
| Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) | Affect communities, the proposed pipeline would pass through several reservations in SD (already affects communities in Canada, MT, ND, SD, & NE) Pipeline route changed to not affect the City’s drinking water, now would affect the Sioux’s |
| DAPL Timeline 2014 | Energy Transfer Partners Proposal 1100 miles from ND to IL Controversal because it crosses or runs by major bodies of water |
| DAPL Timeline 2016-2017 | Standing Rock Sioux protests (2016-2017), treaty rights, eco-justice, sovereignty |
| DAPL Timeline & President Action | Temporary halt to construction under Obama, expedited under Trump in 2017, operational in 2018 |
| DAPL Timeline to Present | 2020 Court Ruling: ACOE had not done a proper EIS (shut down order) 2026: court case still ongoing, oil is flowing Canadaian gov advancing plans for a new potential Indigenous co-owned pipeline |
| "Traditional" Natives as Ecological? | Traditional worldviews, hunting-agricultural practices, pre & post contact (fur trade, buffalo/horse trade)- misunderstanding of traditions? Resource collapses, reinvention of traditions |
| Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) | Contrast between modern scientific knowledge, cumulative evolving bodies of knowledge, practice, & belief between living & non-living things & their environment, Knowledge passed down, oral tradition, adaptive (not necessarily in conflict, just different) |
| Modernity & Daily Native Life | Indigenous but also using the weather channel/radio, etc. |
| Diversity of Native Viewpoints & Economic/Environmental Concerns | opportunities for economic development but also environmental issues, Pipelines & treaty rights (not keeping treaty rights & international agreements, no consultation, but they feel the effects/consequences, long history) |
| History Matters | We are still here (survivance), this isn’t history (still impacts us today), history matters (if we want to understand history & America, we need to know it fully. We can't understand now without hearing the echoes of the past & what we are rooted in. |
| Indian Tribal Energy Development and Self-Determination Act | No more exploitment of tribal natural resources (2005) Treatment as States or TAS status, some tribes adopt wind farms on their land |
| Religious Freedom Restoration Act | 1993: try to protect areas sacred to them from power companies or other such developments) |
| Dams & their impact | Many dams built, kill salmon & pollute water |
| EPA & Natives | 2014: Environmental Protection Agency finalized a new Environmental Justice policy for working with indigenous peoples to meet growing challenges |
| Natives, Development, & Tradition | Not opposed to development, but desires to protect/care fo land because of traditions, honoring ancestors & their burial lands, keeping water sacred, protecting economies & the US should keep the promises they made in treaties long ago (treaties) |
| Survivance Choices & Today | Changing & remaining aspects of culture Choices led to what today looks like (by resisting/accepting change) |
| Horses & Survivance Introduction & Role | Horses introduced in SW when Spanish began to arrive & trade w/ Natives Horses=big role, especially on S Plains (hunt more buffalo & being more mobilized) Decline of buffalo (competiton of resources between buffalo & horses) |
| Horses & Survivance- Agricultural Societies | Communities who opted not to hunt buffalo and instead chose to focus on agricultural ways of life began to decline as they couldn’t earn as much wealth. |
| Horses & Survivance-N Plains Societies | N Plains groups also couldn’t accumulate as much wealth as the S Plains communities; although they did incorporate horses into their ways of life, the harsher climates where they lived didn’t allow them to do so to the same extent as their counterparts. |
| Horses & Survivance Power | Kiowa, Arapaho, Comanche, & Cheyenne greatly benefit & became powerful. Horses=loss of power for women-helped prepare hides for trade, men had many wives to create labor force, women increasingly seen as less = to men, Gap btwn rich & poor widens |
| Natives & Fights for Rights | Red Power & AIM show the world the oppression they were facing & give them a voice. No desires to lose identity- fighting for survival of culture. Wounded Knee (Pan-Indian movement that renewed their connection to cultural traditions) |
| Survivance & Authenticity | Although change did occur in Native communities, it did not necessarily mean they were “less authentically Indian.” |
| Whiskey Tender & Identity | Wrestles w/ her identity as a mixed blood Native. Father=Native from the Quechan (or Yuma) & Laguna Pueblo tribes, Mother= Latina & could pass as a white American. Taffa & her siblings were also fair-skinned, but she felt stuck between cultures. |
| Whiskey Tender & Aspects of Cultures | Struggles to fit into the Navajo community (from a different tribe & rez). Desire to honor Native traditions & past while being pulled away from it by her mother, desire to learn more about identity as a Native from her father to resist losing culture. |
| Whiskey Tender & Honoring Her Native Past | Yellowstone not college. Not the path her parents wanted, but proud of her & acceptance, to connect w/ her roots by working in a place that valued the earth like her ancestors did-Refusal to give up her Native heritage & continue her ancestors’ legacy |
| Rez Life & Survivance | Choices and culture of the past influence today, but that Native people refused and still refuse to be defined by their victimhood at the hands of the government and the racism they face |
| Rez Life, Loss of Language & Culture=Loss of Self-Determination | He argues that this matters because if culture is lost, their ability to determine life on their own terms will also be lost. This self-determination came about due to the long and hard fights by Native people to resist assimilation and change. |
| Rez Life & Connection to the Past | Deep connection to ancestors & the people that came before him. Grandfather's truck=feeling almost 1 w/ him, you can’t ever get rid of your past and your legacy. |
| Rez Life & the Past Influencing the Present | This strongly emphasizes the impact that history has on today, demonstrating how one’s choices affect the future. "The past isn't the past at all" |
| Survivance: Change yet Maintaining Culture | Although Natives changed over time thru choices like incorporating the horse or moving to cities for opportunities, they also maintained aspects of identities by passing down culture & traditions as well as fighting for their rights & self-determination |
| Survivance, Rez Life, & Whiskey Tender | Refusal to be defined by victimhood,blend traditions/ideals & staying true to their identities,Native culture isn't dead & influences today as people like Taffa & Treuer look to the past, celebrate cultures, & find their identities & place in the world. |
Created by:
ashlyl28