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PSCL FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Learning | a relatively permanent behavior change that occurs as a result of events - deemphasis on educational issues (most learning outside classroom) |
| Memory | the retention of retrieval of information - the record of info is called MEMORY TRACE or ENGRAM |
| Comparative psychology | scientific study of differences between species |
| Morgan’s canon | even when similarities appear, hesitate to attribute higher mental processes to other species - behavior not thought |
| Maturation | this is not learning, it is behavior change from passage of time |
| Evolution | characteristics of one species change over time so that the descendants of the members of one species may belong to another species - false start wrong explanation |
| Environment of evolutionary adaptiveness | the environment that was in place when a trait was evolving - BUSS's theory has to take this into account |
| Buss’ Sexual Strategies Theory | goal: to explain human mating behavior in same terms as behavior in other species - when we do this, oddities occur like paternal investment, female menopause, hidden ovulation, female sexuality when not ovulating, private sex |
| Natural selection | members of species vary in traits, some variations inc fitness, passed onto offspring, best fitness wins |
| Epistemology | the philosophical study of the nature of knowledge NATIVISM (knowledge innate), RATIONALISM (complex reasoning is mind), EMPIRICISM (knowledge thru exp + senses), ASSOCIATIONISM (complex ideas combo of simpler ones) |
| Behaviorism | viewed science as study of observable events and psychology as the study of behavior - remove all mentalist concepts from psych |
| Functionalism | emphasis on the functions of consciousness; often based in observation |
| Cognitive approach | goal is to use measures of behavior to develop and text theories of mental processes - mind is like a computer - categorization - understanding behavior to understand the mental experience |
| Repetition priming | processing of stimulus is affected by previous presentation of it - preference for familiar tasks - perceptual identification - word completion ---- also rat task, the altering of the startle |
| Learning curve | created w/ many learning trials monotonic (move in one direction, show learning) negatively accelerated (rate at which total amt learned changes is always slowing down) --- think upside down exponential |
| Habituation | a decrease in a response to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented - occurs more rapidly if same stimulus mult occasions - context-specific - spontaneous recovery |
| Dishabituation | habituation to one stimulus can be temporarily blocked by presenting another stimulus - baby w/ female voice saying different words |
| Discrimination | responding differently to different stimuli - babies and color ----- see same color then show slight diff color they can discriminate |
| Coolidge effect | habituation of male sexual responses - males mate w/ ovulating female - will not mate again w/ same female but will w/ diff ovulating female |
| Aplysia | magnitude of a response increase as a result of repitition |
| Sensitization | magnitude of a response increase as a result of repitition |
| Wagner’s cognitive theory of habituation | the distinction between short term memory and long term memory. habituation could represent either. - short term: still in working memory - long term: need more spaced out stimulus for it to still fn STM will decline in a day, but jumps once more LTM |
| Thompson et al.’s dual-process theory of habituation and sensitization | response to stimulus depends on two diff types of neurons: - type H: most directly involved in the reflex arc, tend to habituate to repeated stimulation - type S: more central, reflect general state of arousal in organism, likely enhance responsiveness |
| Opponent-process theory of acquired motivation | all organisms are oriented to homeostasis - exp strong reaction A, exp strong counter-reaction B - B begins and ends after A - A havituates, B sensitives ----- ex: 1st heroin very euphoric, after neg. as you go less euphoric and after way more neg |
| Hedonic treadmill | emotion systems react to life circumstances, returning us to our emotional set point - life experiences only temp affect on happiness |
| Perceptual learning | once we have learned how to perceive or identify a stimulus, it is easier to learn other things about it - previous exposure = better discrimination |
| Composites Effect | we treat two halves holistically - take a celeb and match half their face w/ another very hard to identify the celeb |
| Whole Advantage | when asked to recognize a face, they can distinguish it from another face that differs only in the nose, but can't recognize nose on its own |
| Inversion Effect | inversion disrupts face perception, esp sensitivity to spatial relations |
| Classical conditioning | contingency learning, acquisition of knowledge about correlations between stimuli |
| Unconditioned stimulus | item w/ no response correlated ex: food |
| Conditioned stimulus | item w/ a response correlated ex: tone |
| Unconditioned response | natural correlated response to item ex: salivation to food |
| Conditioned response | natural response with the un-natural item ex: salivation to tone |
| Extinction | elimination of a conditioned response as a result of presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone |
| Spontaneous recovery | extinction fades away as a result of the passage of time |
| Conditioned emotional response | fear conditioning - typically US is shock - response is termination of activity ex: light on, electricity flows -- don't touch! |
| Summation test of conditioned inhibition | phase 1: CS1 = US, CS2 = US phase 2: CS1, CS3 = No US (believe CS3 results in no food) test: CS2, CS3 (conditioned response disappears) |
| Retardation of acquisition test of conditioned inhibition | Phase 1: CS1 = US Phase 2: CS1 + CS2 = No US Try to condition CS2 = US (light = food) slowed down acquisition of conditioning, dog has to unlearn previous learning |
| Delay conditioning | CS starts before US and stays on until US is done |
| Preparedness | relative preparedness defined by the number of learning experiences that must occur before behavior change is reliable - evolutionary learning can have an impact on this )phobias) |
| Conditioned taste aversions | avoidance of food as result of illness, unusual aspects: - long delay, one-trial learning, only certain aspects |
| Sensory preconditioning | Phase 1: CS2 - CS1 phase 2: CS1 - US CR - CS2 start w/ light + tone both mean nothing THEN create an association |
| Second-order conditioning | Phase 1: CS1 - US (tone = food, a lot of trials) Phase 2: CS2 - CS1 (light = tone, few trials) - no wipe out p1 CR to CS2 (light = salivates) |
| Blocking | Phase 1: CS1 - US (tone = food) Phase 2: CS1, CS2 - US (tone/light = food) No CR to CS2 (light = nothing) |
| Unblocking | IF tone + light as CS1 and CS2 has a lot of food, this would be unblocking -- an INC in US to get CR |
| Overshadowing | a stronger more salient CS may be learned at the expense of a weaker CS (they occur at the same time) |
| Rescorla-Wagner theory of classical conditioning | classical conditioning has evolved to allow animals to predict events - conditioning takes place to the extent the US cannot be successfully predicted prediction error: learning takes place when what occurs doesn't match predicitions |
| Safety learning | example of inhibitory classical conditioning - stimulus A associated w/ pain - however is stimulus X present, no shock so X becomes a safety signal |
| Positive and negative patterning | positive: compound CSs - US; individual Cs don't negative: individual CSs - US; compound doesn't |
| Hall-Pearce negative transfer | evidence that subjects may reduce attention to a CS when its association to a US seems to be well-understood - learning of one association in phase 1 impairs learning of a different association in phase 2 |
| Evaluative conditioning | to what extent can associations between stimuli change our emotional reaction to them - neutral pictures paired w/ liked pictures now liked and opposite for disliked - photos more attractive if shown to subjects while eating |
| Perruchet effect | subjects conscious expectations may differ from physiological responses - eyeblink conditioning replicable phenomenon that can be found in humans with other conditioning procedures - concious expectations driven by cognitive processes |
| Causal learning | to what extent do we rely on simple associations when deciding one thing causes another - causal mechanisms, associations - medical diagnosis tests |
| what does learning exclude | temperment change, maturation, and innate things (learning to walk) |
| Structuralism | the proper topic for psychology was conscious processes and immediate experience (introspection) |
| behaviorism antimentalist | cant observe mind or mental process |
| behaviorism empiricist | emphasizing role of exp |
| behaviorism associationist | lots of associations + eonnections |
| behaviorism reductionist | you understand by breaking into smaller pieces |
| three forms of simple learning | stimulus learning, learning about relationships (associations) between stimuli, learning about relationship between stimuli and our behavior |
| recallrecall | tell me what happened - free (tell words on list, any order) - cued (words on list animals, write them) - seriel (write list of words in order) |
| recognition | yes-no (say yes to words on list) forced-choice (pick one of two words which on list) |
| when do habituation and sensitization occur | weak stimuli (H), strong stimuli (S) tranquility (H), stress (S) inappropriate (H), appropriate (S) --- H is a reduction/elimination of an inappropriate response ---S: inc in general responsiveness important to enviro |
| mechanisms of perceptual learning | stimulus storage - storing particular stimuli for faster matching differentiation - learning to make finer distinctions attention weighing - learning which dimensions important utilization - combine stimuli into compounds, perceive holistically |
| Rescorla and his probabilities | look into: p(US/CS) - US will occur given CS occurred (food w/ tone) p(US/noCS) - US will occur given no CS (food will arrive w/ no tone) -- means tone does not mean no food vs food, completely random cntrl |
| Thorndike’s Law of Effect | responses in a situation folloed by satisfaction will become stronger. Responses followed by discomfort will become weaker. |
| Cats in a Puzzle Box | random trial + error behavior gradual change behavior |
| Law of Effect doubts | do animals really know what to expect? - contrast effects do animals always show behavior change? - kohler and insight in apes |
| contrast effects | negative (switch from large to small reinforcement) positive (switch from small to large reinforcement) |
| Skinner Box | aka operant chamber - small aparatus with way for subject to make responses and experimenter to deliver reinforcement - rats + levers, piegons + keys |
| shaping | reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired behavior |
| chaining | constructing a sequence of behaviors with reinforcement only occurring after the final response in the sequence |
| extinction | response eliminated when reinforcement is withheld |
| extinction burst | temporary increase of nonreinforced behavior when extinction starts |
| spontaneous recovery | extinction fades away as a passage of time - not only way for extinguished responses to occur |
| resurgence | recovery of an extinguished response after extinction of a competing behavior |
| typical resurgence procedure | rats in skinner box, 2 levers -- phase1: L1 = food, L2 = no effect -- phase2: extinguish L1 (no food) -- phase3: L2 = food, L1 = no effect -- phase4: extinguish L2 (no food) result --> rats will resume pressing L1 (resurgence) even in absence of food |
| partial reinforcement extinction effect | slows down acquisition of response BUT increase resistance to extinction |
| discrimination hypothesis | more difficult to distinguish between acquisition phase and extinction phase |
| frustration hypothesis | responding while frusterated becomes associated with reinforcement |
| sequential hypothesis | memory of sequence of nonrewarded trials becomes associated with reinforcement |
| schedules of partial reinforcement | fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio |
| schedules of partial reinforcement | fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, variable ratio |
| fixed-interval | reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a set period of time |
| variable-interval | reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a changing period of time |
| fixed-ratio | reinforcement is given for a set number of responses |
| variable-ratio | reinforcement is given for a changing number of responses |
| pauses after reinforcement on | fixed schedules, esp interval |
| greater responding on | ratio schedules than interval |
| greatest total number of responses on what schedule | variable-ratio |
| matching law | responses are distributed to reflect the distribution of reinforcements |
| example of matching law | - 2 subjects in operant (variable-interval) experiments simultaneously - proportion of responses that a subject makes of a certain kind matches the proportion of reinforcement that is received from those responses |
| probability matching | a related pattern is found in human cognition. the probability of choosing an option tends the match the probability of that option succeeding. |
| example of probability matching | subjects predict 2 lights will come on. if one comes on 80% of the time and the other 20%, they'll pick first one 80% of time. This does not maximize successes. - should pick most probable every time |
| basic idea of the ephemeral rewards task (ERT) | choice doesn't always seem rational |
| in the ERT, what goes down | subjects given a choice between two responses on each trial, each leading to identical rewards. If A - reward given, trial ends. If B, reward given, but A still available. |
| So what are the ERT results | Optimal strategy should be to always first make the response that will keep the other response available (B) and get 2 reinforcements. BUT animals + some primates choose A/B 50/50. |
| what happens with humans and ERT | many humans also pick suboptimally after going thru 60 trials to earn points. They report being confused by this. |
| self control | one type of choice, NOT a moral judgement --> behavioral phenomenon |
| how to study self control | behaviorally by choice between immediate small reward vs larger delayed reward |
| discounting | future rewards not valued as highly as immediate rewards. future punishments not feared as much as immediate. |
| why does discounting make sense | life is inherently uncertain, cannot rely on the future |
| what does keynes say | do not just focus on the long run bc we are all dead then |
| how do pigeons test discounting | put em in a skinner box 1 interaction = less but instant food 2 interaction = more but delayed food pigeons have a lot of discounting poor self control |
| who did hundreds of experiments about discounting | mischel |
| what were the mischel experiments | child waiting to eat candy so they can get two pieces - older child, more likely to wait - something else to do helps - ironic processess - reflects long term personality characteristics |
| Pleasant: the response produces reinforcing outcome | Reward Training (positive reinforcement) - Response INC |
| Unpleasant: the response produces reinforcing outcome | Punishment Response DEC |
| Pleasant: the response prevents reinforcing outcome | Omission, Extinction, Time Out Response DEC |
| Unpleasant: the response prevents reinforcing outcome | Escape, Avoidance (Negative reinforcement) - Response INC |
| when does punishment work? | consistency, delay, intensity factors |
| side effects of punishment? | conditioned fear, aggression |
| omission training | don't do something - good outcome occurs -- ex: time out |
| escape | learn to avoid punishment - two process theory |
| two-process theory | classical conditioning of fear to warning signal + reduction of fear as reinforcement - once learned will always avoid |
| evidence against the two process theory | SIDMAN AVOIDANCE PROCEDURE - no warning signal - animals still find ways to avoid |
| cognitive theory of avoidance | subject develops expectations (e.g. no shock if I respond, shock if I don't) - expectations of circumstance, subject's knowledge/cognitions |
| instrumental learning is sort of | the subject learning how to control the world |
| learned helplessness | learning that there is a lack of contingency between responses and an aversive outcome |
| example of learned helplessness | forcing a dog to be shocked, they stop struggling/trying to escape eventually |
| how do bad events relate to learned helplessness | sometimes when bad things happen, you take it as something that you could fix --> no excuse? bam LH if you learn you cannot fix things, you will not look for the opportunity to fix them |
| learned helplessness has served as a model for what | depression |
| long term learned helplessness effects: emotional | depressed effect, loss of appetite and sex drive, psychosomatic illness |
| long term learned helplessness effects: motivational | lack of initiative to respond |
| long term learned helplessness effects: cognitive | develop "external locus of control" attributional style; fail to recognize situations where they could exert control |
| social defeat approach | psychological and behavioral effects of the losing party in a confrontation among animals of the same species |
| what criticism does social defeat come from | learned helplessness research with animals is often using artifical negative stimuli - social defeat a more realistic manipulation |
| resident-intruder task | animal placed in cage of another animal(s) of same species in a manner that allows non-lethal conflict. - documented to produce anxiety-like and depressive-like symptoms in mice |
| animals allowed to fight on a single occassion | acute stress |
| animals allowed to fight on several occasions | chronic stress |
| after the defeat/interval between social defeat fights | subordinate animal may be exposed to threats from the dominant one - nearby cage - visual/olfactory cues |
| classical conditioning | learning about ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN EXTERNAL EVENTS (out in the world), theories emphasize STIMULUS-STIMULUS associations |
| instrumental conditioning | learning about associations between OUR OWN BEHAVIOR and EXTERNAL events (reinforcement) - our behavior can alter likelihood of outcome |
| who's in charge CC | experimenters determine trials by presenting CS + US |
| who's in charge IC | the subject must make the response |
| nature of response CC | usually involuntary (blinking, salivating, etc) |
| nature of response IC | usually voluntary (pushing a lever) |
| biofeedback | an exception to IC - instrumentally controlling an autonomic response through the use of biofeedback: procedure of giving an individual info about the activity of an internal response |
| drive-reduction theory | positive reinforcers reduce drives, and negative reinforcers increase drives - complete actions to reduce uncomfortable "drive" - brain stimulation as reinforcement - chimpanzees prefer african or indian music to silence |
| if drive-reduction is about bio needs, is it always needed? | no! hull says it's sometimes wrong for ex: ppl love diet coke, but it costs money, bad for health, water is necessary and free |
| what does drive-reduction not take into account | pleasure! |
| incentive motivation | reinforcers are incentives that elicit responding - food! (hunger + pleasure) |
| reinforcer priming | exposure to reinforcer may enforce responding |
| relative reinforcement | anything can be a reinforcement depending on what alternatives are |
| premark principle | a higher probability activity will reinforce a lower probability activity |
| response deprivation theory | reinforcer is an opportunity to move closer to bliss point - if you are deprived of something more likely to work to be able to increase doing that thing |
| bliss point | ideal distribution of time and effort across all points |
| secondary reinforcement | neural stimuli that have been paired with reinforcers and have acquired the capacity to reinforce on their own - money! |
| social reinforcement | in many species (including humans) attention + physical contact may serve as reinforcement - theorists differ if this is primary or secondary reinforcement |
| what actually is reinforcement? | watson/skinner: - if subjects will inc response to get access to something, that is positive reinforcement - if subjects inc response to having something taken away, that is negative reinforcement |
| ecological validity of punishment | only effective in certain circumstances negative side effects (ex: avoidance, aggression) |
| ecological validity of reward | token economies |
| token economies | clients earned tokens for participating in predetermined target behaviors which can be exchanged for reinforcements - inpatient units, correctional facilities, schools |
| goal of token economies | generalize behavior to other settings BUT may not generalize, depends |
| potential limitations of token economies | lab closed economy, world an open one goal gradient hypothesis |
| goal gradient hypothesis | effect of a reward is weaker further the behavior from the reward |
| how do rewards punish us? | kohn - yes rewards change behavior, but negative consequences good sometimes - rewards may reduce creativity - ppl may focus on reward targets instead of thinking outside of the box ----- reduction of INTRINSIC motivation |
| stimulus control | conditioning a response to occur more often in the presence of a specific stimulus than in its absence |
| discriminative stimulus (S^D) | yes, if you make the response now you will get reinforcement |
| how is stimulus control not CC | you still need to DO the response (pull lever) to be reinforced |
| generalization | responding similarly to similar stimuli. to get a sense of similarity for a subject, a generalization gradient can be formed. |
| generalization gradient | - condition to respond in presence of S^D, not respond in absence (variaable interval sched) - test for responses to different stimuli. plot # of responses as Fn of similarity to S^D - gradient is symmetric, centered on S^D |
| what do we do stimulus control for | to study generalization |
| discrimination training | responses in the presence of one stimulus (S^D) would be reinforced, while responses in presence of another stimulus (Sdelta) are not. - learn WHEN to make responses and when not - focus not on training, but what subject does after figuring out rules |
| what happens after discrimination training | subjects are tested on a range of stimuli. discrimination training typically results in generalization gradient that is narrower w/ a higher peak. the peak of responding is moved away for Sdelta |
| behavioral contrast | a phenomenon where changing a reinforcement schedule in one setting causes a behavior to change in the opposite direction in an unchanged setting |
| peak shift | peak becomes higher, narrower, shifted |
| continuity approach | discrimination is achieved by gradual association of one stimulus w/ award (excitation) and one nonreward (inhibition). these associations spread to similar stimuli. - natural explanation of peak shift, excitation/inhibition spread |
| non-continuity approach | discrimination is achieved by attention to particular dimensions + hypothesis testing. behavior can change drastically from one trial to another as different hypotheses are tested. - often tested on multidimensional stimuli |
| mackintosh cnon-ontinuity study | some animals focus on one dimension, some focus on another, and some on compound ex: SD: red circle, Sdelta: blue triangle pigion shown circle, triangle, red, blue then? indv animals focus on diff aspects color, shape, etc |
| testing subjects on stimuli varying on two dimensions | after one discrimination is mastered, which kind of shift is more easily learned? ex: see red/blue circles + triangles p1: S^D blue, Sdelta red - blue circle: respond - blue triangle: respond - red circle: no respond - red traingle: no respond |
| reversal shift | essentially change what is going on to every stimulus. some dimension matters (S^D red, Sdelta blue) -- BC = BT = no response, RC + RT = response. Just keep paying attn to color |
| nonreversal shifta | change dimension (S^D circle, Sdelta triangle) -- BC + RC = response, BT + RT = no response |
| what is a tool to study concept learning in animals? | discrimination training |
| hernstein on discrimination training | train pigeons with S^D a class of stimuli and Sdelta anything not in that class. after training test two slides. pigeons capable of learning open-ended categories: - trees vs non trees, indv vs others, dish vs nonfish, humans vs nonhumans |
| errorless | telling people answer so fast they don't even have the option to mess it up |
| errorless discrimination | discrimination can be a long and seemingly frustrating process for subjects with freq responses to Sdelta |
| terrace's errorless DT | begin training w/ Sdelta very far away from S^D. gradually, move Sdelta closer and closer to S^D (stimulus fading) |
| preparedness | relative preparedness defined by the number of learning experiences one must occur before behavior change is reliable |
| conditioned taste aversion | avoidance of food as reponse to illness - long delay - one-trial learning - only certain aspects |
| preparedness and phobia | early evidence on phobias and conditioning: Watson and Rayner Little Albert |
| prepared fear module: ohman and mineka | - responds to simuli that are threatening in species' history - responding is automatic and involuntary - fear response is relatively unaffected by other modules (cog) - specialized neural circuts (amygdala) |
| - responds to simuli that are threatening in species' history - responding is automatic and involuntary - fear response is relatively unaffected by other modules (cog) - specialized neural circuts (amygdala) | pigeons pecking at light for food but wtf they are also flapping wings?? - superstitious behaviors!! |
| superstitious behaviors | pigeons did external activities bc they were accidentally reinforced - THIS IS WRONG |
| staddon and simmelhag were like let's observe these pigeons | not random! diff pigeons tended to show same behaviors - interim and terminal activities |
| interim activities | some activities regularly done right after food delivery |
| terminal activities | activities that occurred as time for the next food delivery approached |
| instinctive drift | over time, innate behavior dominates conditioned behavior |
| species-specific defensive reactions | innate response primed in dnagerous situations |
| autoshaping | responding (pecking) in the absence of a relationship with reinforcement |
| negative autoshaping | responding (pecking) in an omission training design |
| behavior system | a behavior system is a related set of perceptual, behavioral, and motivational elements that move together like a unit |
| example of a behavior system | activation of the food system predisposes sensitivity to food-related stimuli, food-searching responses, and food-related reinforcers |
| what do behavior systems emphasize | role of innate, complex behavior in both simple experiments and everyday life |
| viewing learning as stimulus-response association is much too simple | reinforcement is activating a complex structure based on heredity |
| persistance | the voluntary, motivated continuation of goal-directed behavior despite obstacles, challenges, or fatigue |
| approach-avoidance conflict | occurs when a single goal or object holds both positive (desirable) and negative (avoidant) characteristics, causing simultaneous urges to approach and avoid it |
| memory | retention or retrieval of info |
| term for the record of info | memory trace or engram |
| connotation of memory | learning = animal memory = human |
| if conditioning is learning then verbal info is | memory |
| if (blnak) stimuli is learning then (blank) stimuli are memory | novel, familiar |
| verbal learning | study of the aquisition and retention of lists by humans in an effort to describe the basic laws of learning |
| where did traditional VL research begin | ebbinghaus lab - theorizing influenced by behaviorist conditioning research and emphasized |
| stimulus-response associations | memory seen as being like animal conditioning |
| four common VL methods | serial learning, paired associate learning, free recall, recognition |
| serial learning | a list of items is learned and reproduced according to their sequence of occurrence w/in the list |
| paired associate learning | list of pairs of aitems (stimulus terms + response terms) is presented. subjects must learn to recall response when stimulus term is presented. |
| free recall | list of items is presented. subjects must retrieve list items and emit them in any order. |
| recognition | list of items is presented. on a later test, subjects are shown stimuli, they must discriminate between stimuli they had been on the list and stimuli that had not been on the list. |
| paired associate learning and species | although first studied on humans by ebbinghaus, similar tasks can be used on other species |
| the simultaneous chain task | monkeys see list of pictures. must learn to touch pictures in particular order. on each trial, pictures shown in a diff spatial arrangement, so monkeys must learn the pictures not the locations or movements. performance cont until monkeys reach criterion. |
| observations from the simultaneous chain task | - serial learning of each list is shown, with performance inc across sessions - evidence of learning how to learn. when given new lists, experienced monkeys reach criterion faster |
| ebbinghaus contributions | - methodology --- nonsense syllables --- relearning --- savings score - theoretical contribution |
| chaining hypithesis | stimulus learning is primarily accompanied by the formation + strengthening of associations btwn adjacent items, w/ each item serving as a response to the previous item. serial learning is based on stimulus-response associations of adjacent items on list. |
| what did ebbinghaus find evidence for | remote associations - adjacent items not sole basis of serial learning |
| remote associations | associations between non-adjacent items |
| extensions of ebbinghaus work | early and late items are learned before intermediate items - serial position effects: primacy and recency |
| Von Restorff (or isolation) effect | a distinctive item is learned before other items |
| ranschburg effect | tendency to make errors on the second occurance of an item that occurs twice on a serial list - 7 4 9 2 !4! 3 8 5 1 - no effect on first consequence of repeated item |
| causes of ranschberg effect | biased guessing inhibition |
| analysis of paired associate learning (pal) | - stimulus discrimination - response learning - stimulus-response associating |
| name learning | a common memory complaint |
| name learning examples | - arbitrary + meaningless -- easier to recall that a person is a baker than that the person's name is baker -- nurses can recall that a person has Hodgkin's disease of Bell's palsy but not that the person was named Hodgkin or Bell |
| stimulus-response associating | take a look at the screenshot on my computer sorry to anyone i shared this with |
| Lashley abt chaining hypothesis | a chain of associations would be too slow to accomodate quick, skilled behavior - skilled mvmnts seem to require preparation for one mvmnt while previous mvmnts are sill occuring - langauge and other skilled activities involves structure |
| young evidence against chaining | little evidence of positive transfer from serial learning to paired-associate learning (where the pairs come from the serial list) |
| young serial to PAL exp | p1: serial list until they could report it perfect in order. p2: learn a list of paried-associates until they master the list (ie recalling 2nd term when given the 1st). the PA were stimuli had been in adj positions in serial list. - control only did p2 |
| positive transfer | occurs when learning one task enhances your performance on a subsequent task |
| little evidence of positive transfer from serial learning to PAL? | young found little difference in performance on PAL btwn the experimental group and the control group. - whatever exp group learned in 1st phase did not transfer over to 2nd phase. |
| why is what young found with his serial/PAL experiment inconsistent w/ the chaining hypothesis | bc it assumes that learning the serial list (p1) involves forming associations between adjacent items, exactly the associations required for the PA list (and phase). the chaining hyp would have predicted large pos transfer. |
| multiple sources of info used in serial learning | 1. item to item associations 2. item to position associations 3. active grouping of lists |
| 1. item to item associations | as in chaining spin-list condition recall of adjacent items is strongly related |
| spin-list condition | people are tested five times on a single list but the list begins each trial at a different position. learning improves across trials. |
| 2. item to position associations | - misplaced items tend to be recalled in nearby locations - when multiple lists are learned, items may be recalled in correct position, but wrong list |
| 3. active grouping of lists | a mistake to view serial learning purely in terms of stimulus-response associations - inserting pauses can improve recall |
| free recall but more | subjects allowed to recall items in any order - immediate free recall shows serial-position effects - recall order can reveal organizations of list |
| organization: clustering | - 15 instances from 4 categories (animals, names, profession, vegetables) - examine output order in free recall - strong correlation between clustering + recall: subjects who recall the most show strong clustering |
| subjective organization | consistency of output order in multi-trial free recall; evidence for organization of lists of unrelated words |
| recognition | yes-no multiple choice |
| signal detection theory + its application to recognition | - perceptual decisions depend on discriminality + decision rule - accuracy on how often responses correctly + often incorrectly - recog is analogous to perceptual decision based in familiarity - important to distinguish btwn accuracy + response bias |
| signal detection theory: hits | 'yes' correctly |
| signal detection theory: false alarms | answer 'yes' incorrectly |
| signal detection theory: correct rejections | answer 'no' correctly |
| signal detection theory: misses | answer 'no' incorrectly |
| signal detection theory: accuracy | function of Hits - False Alarms |
| pseudowork effect in recognition memory | give people a list of compound words and pseudowords (pronounceable nonwords eg LONK, FING, RAME) than recog test: - words: hits = .58 fa = .18 - psuedowords: hits = .76 fa = .43 |
| pseudowork effect in recognition memory | give people a list of compound words and pseudowords (pronounceable nonwords eg LONK, FING, RAME) than recog test: - words: hits = .58 fa = .18 - psuedowords: hits = .76 fa = .43 |
| results of pseudoword tests | people give more positive recognition responses to pseudowords than words - recognition accuracy is better for words than for pseudowords |
| remembering is what | recollection |
| knowing is what | vague sense of familiarity |
| remembering vs knowing in a recognition test | when they say they recognize something ask if they remember or know it - remember: words . 21 | pseudowords . 19 - know: words. 17 | pseudowords .41 |
| recognition without awareness main idea | just because we do not feel like we are remembering a particular memory does not mean that we are not accessing that memory |
| recognition without awareness scientific definition | the recognition performance above chance even when you think you are guessing |
| craik study on recognition without awareness | subjects study list of words. receive alternate forced choice test. they picked word thought on list. rated confidence on word as right choice. subjects always above chance lvl .25 even with confidence rated as 0 |
| what common phenomenon is probably due to recognition without awareness | deja vu!! argued some aspect of the present situation accesses a prior memory, even if not strong enough to bring that memory into consciousness. |
| statistical learning | behavior change determined by sensitivity to the probability of co-occurance of stimuli - think language |
| who popularized statistical learning | Saffran, Aslin, Newport |
| saffran statistical learning exoeriment | - infants heard 2 min cont stream made up of random ordering of four 3-syllable nonsense words. no acoustic cues as to how to segment into words. - then, played 3 syllable stimuli that either follow or violate prior pattern. |
| results of saffran experiment | they paid more attn to the violate, suggesting surprise. infants had learned to segment the 2 min stream into "words" based on the statistical properties of the syllables. |
| Revelation effect | more likely to falsely recognize an item as "old" (previously seen) if it is revealed following a mental task, such as an anagram or puzzle. occurs bc the cog effort of revealing the item creates familiarity that is misattributed to prior memory. |
| Verbal Learning | - Tendency to view human memory as being like conditioning; emphasis on stimulus-response associations - Tends to take a molar (unified) approach |
| Partitioning | Different memory tasks involve entirely different components (modularity) |
| Processing Approaches | Rather than focus on the structure of memory, focus on what rememberers do |
| One approach to memory is to break it into smaller components. Why is this useful? | Science depends on being able to make generalizations. It is often difficult to make generalizations about memory in general. However, it is often possible to make generalizations about particular forms of memory. |
| partitioning approach: dissociations | a case where an experimental variable has different effects on different tasks |
| partitioning approach: double dissociations | in which a variable has opposite effects on two tasks. |
| Dual-Store Theory | • STM is brief, w info being lost if not rehearsed; LTM is long-lasting • STM limit capacity, LTM essentially be limitless • info can be lost in STM, by displacement from other stimuli. Displacement is not issue LTM. • STM can transfer info to LTM |
| Verbal learning tests (e.g., recall, recognition, serial learning) are all | measures of episodic memory |
| Some measures of animal memory (delayed matching to sample, change detection, radial-arm maze) may measure | ‘episodic-like’ |
| Priming | change in response to a stimulus that has recently been experienced |
| Habit learning | Even patients with global amnesia develop new habits |
| How do groups differ in what they do? How do situations vary in behavior they elicit from learners? | Depth of Processing Framework |
| Depth of Processing Framework | Assumptions |
| Assumptions | - Processing goes through ordered stages - Memorability depends upon depth to which information had been processed - Best memory is for information that received elaborative (deep) processing |
| Connectionism | computer-based technique for modeling complex systems that is inspired by the structure of the nervous system. |
| Connectionist models share these properties | - Large number of simple but interconnected units - Three levels: input, hidden [internal, between input and output] , output - Each unit can receive excitatory or inhibitory activity - Units sum activity. If sum greater than threshold, unit active |
| where is the learning in connectionism | Learning consists of changes in the weights (strengths) of connections |
| The delta rule | One way to model these changes in weights of connections: The delta rule (change on each trial is a function of the difference between maximum strength and current strength). This is like the Rescorla-Wagner theory in classical conditioning. |
| The Delta Rule in Connectionist Models | Imagine a connectionist model for associating names with people. When a name and a person occur at the same time, the connection between them is strengthened. |
| formula for the delta rule | im sorry to do this, but way too much for here check notes or if ur ave the ss |
| why short term retention? | - very accurate memory for events from immediate past - but this ^^^ is limited in capacity - easily disrupted by interferance - fades quickly over time |
| Delayed Responding Test | Typically, food is hidden and an animal can’t retrieve it until after a delay has passed |
| Delayed Responding Test results | rats, raccoons - remember where food hidden several seconds dogs, cats - 2/3 mins monkeys, young children - few mins |
| Cache | a hidden stash of food stored for future use to ensure a reliable supply when needed |
| Larder-hoarding | Store food in one loacation for later use - Typically, the animal will stay nearly to guard the cache |
| Scatter-hoarding | Store food in a large number of widely-dispersed locations |
| the location of food caches over several months, even with scatter-hoarding, accuracy of animals memory | near-perfect (animals have best cog abilities when tested in ecologically valid enviros) |
| piegons and delayed matching | - Pigeons face three lights – one of them lights up (red or green) – light goes out (retention interval 0-60s) – red and green lights come on (random locations) – pigeon must peck on light that matches first sample ---- they have short delay memory |
| Reference memory | The long-term component of animal short-term memory tasks. This is the information that applies to every trial. |
| Working memory | The trial-specific component of animal short-term memory tasks. |
| pitting reference and working against each other | With short delays, monkeys typically made the right choice (WM). With longer delays, they tended to pick the one that had usually been the right answer in the past (RM) |
| Delayed Symbolic Matching to Sample | You have to match probe to sample that is a different stimulus that serves as a symbolic match |
| auditory-visual matching requiring pigeons to associate particular tones with particular pictures | - one of several tones is played - After a delay, one of several pictures is shown - Pigeon must peck at the picture that is a symbolic match for the tone that was presented - Pigeons seem do by mentally representing correct pic they hear the tone |
| pigeons and presenting distracting pictures with auditory-visual matching results | Presenting distracting pictures during the retention interval impairs performance but presenting distracting tones does not |
| Delayed Matching to Sample with Four-Item Lists general study | - subjects went through trials where four slides were shown one at a time for 1 s - After last slide, a test probe appears. - Subject has to make one response, and a different response if no match |
| Delayed Matching to Sample with Four-Item Lists critical variables | - species (pigeon, monkey, human) - retention interval (time btwn test and probe) - serial position (which list item, if any, does the probe match?) |
| Delayed Matching to Sample with Four-Item Lists what do all three species show | RECENCY TO PRIMACY - At short retention intervals, memory for the last item is best. At longer intervals, memory for the first item is best. |
| Change-Detection Task | used to study visual short-term memory in which subjects view an array of visual stimuli and (after a short delay) have to indicate which stimulus changes (whole display) or whether a particular location has changed (single probe). |
| can the Change-Detection Task be used on nonhuman subjects? | yes! both! |
| but what happened with the Change-Detection Task on nonhumans? | - Human performance consistently superior to that of rhesus monkeys - humans + monkeys affectes in similar ways --- longer delays btwn display and test hurt performance --- larger number of items on initial display hurt performance |
| Memory Span | The longest sequence of items that can be recalled in correct order after a single presentation |
| Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus Two | a foundational text in cognitive psychology that argues the average person can hold about 5 to 9 items (or "chunks") in their short-term memory at one time |
| Importance of Chunking (Recoding) | increases short-term memory capacity and enhances learning efficiency |
| examples of the memory span not being fixed | - Digits are remembered better than letters or words - phonological similarity effect - Word-length effect |
| phonological similarity effect | Span is reduced for rhyming items |
| Word-length effect | Span is greater for short words than for long words - May be due to articulation differences. Digit span is greater in languages where digits can be pronounced more rapidly |
| Brown-Peterson Distractor Task | • Many trials • Each trial – Set of three letters – Distracting task – Recall letters in order longer retention interval, lower recall |
| what did Keppel and Underwood find with the distractor task | Proactive Interference |
| Proactive Interference | - found little forgetting on first trial, with rate of forgetting increasing across first few trials. - Interference results from similarity. If memory material is switched (e.g., letters to digits), interference should be reduced. |
| Kirchner N- Back Test | a way to study cognitive decline in aging. He required subjects to remember positions of lights, but most contemporary studies use list of verbal items. |
| Typical study of N-Back experiment where N is set to two. | Subject see string of letters. Each shown about 500 ms w/ 2500 ms btwn letters – must make a response if letter matches the one shown 2 positions ago. Harder N is set higher (when N set to 3, you make + response if current letter matches letter 3 ago). |
| example of the N-back | Subject sees DXNXGJJTMTSBNSNWBRTRTKLSXL • Subject is supposed to make positive responses to the fourth item (second X), tenth item (second T), fifteenth item (second N), twentieth item (second R), and twenty-first item (second T) |
| what was the Corsi Block Test originally intended as | Originally intended as a nonverbal version of the digit-span task. |
| corsi block text original experiment | In original version, there would be a set of blocks on a table. The experimenter would tap each block once. The subject must then tap each block in the same order. - begins easy, harder (more blocks) when correct - ppl can recall sequence of 5 perfect |
| corsi block experiment more mordern version | Widely used now in computer form, with blocks on a screen lighting up in a particular order and then subject must touch them in the same order. |
| Three Stages of Memory | encoding, storage, retrieval |
| encoding | The acquisition of information; the initial formation of a memory trace - can be affected by stimulus variables, learner variables, and presentation variables |
| Stimulus Variables affecting Encoding | meaningfulness, concreteness, imagery |
| Meaningfulness | the number of times an item is used as a free association to other stimuli - better memory for more meaningful terms - more associations to other ideas and knowledge |
| Concreteness | Specific, physical things are better remembered than more abstract concepts |
| Imagery | - Words that can be readily imagined are remembered well - Objects or pictures are better remembered than their names or verbal descriptions |
| what may be the reason for better imagery memory | dual coding: Pictures tend to be encoded two ways [one visual and the other a verbal translation], but verbal stimuli are only encoded one way |
| Learner variables that may influence encoding | incidental learning vs intentional learning, Incentives, Interest, arousal |
| Incidental learning | memory for information encoded without any deliberate intention to remember) |
| intentional learning | memory for information that was deliberately studied |
| Incidental learning vs intentional learning | Intent to learn has no direct effect on memory but leads learners to deploy additional resources and strategies that enhance memory |
| Incentives | If subjects will be reinforced more for recalling more of one type of word than another, they will recall more of the first type. Incentives encourage people to devote more resources to priority items. |
| Interest | People recall more if they are interested in the material (e.g., sports fans recalling details of games) |
| Arousal | Arousal generally improves learning, though the optimal level of arousal for any given task may vary. |
| Presentation Variables that may influence encoding | repetition, spacing of repetitions, testing, distinctiveness, elaborative processing, generation effects |
| Repetition | Memory improves as a function of the number of times a word is presented. - Each presentation of a repeated item leaves a separate memory trace. |
| what kind of learning curve is repeptition | monotonic negatively accelerated learning curve |
| The spacing effect | Spaced repetitions lead to better memory than massed repetitions - particularly true at long retention intervals |
| Attention-deficit hypothesis | subjects pay less attention to second occurrence of massed item than spaced item - Shown by overt rehearsals and self-paced study times |
| Encoding variability hypothesis | pacing leads to slightly different encodings, and long-term recall is enhanced by having multiple routes to the target |
| Testing effect | the greater benefit for later retention of taking a test over additional study - Testing leads to more cognitive effort and engagement – Testing mimics what will be required on final test |
| study of if Testing Help in Real School Situations? | Seventh-graders in science and history classes. In addition to regular classroom lessons, learning was enhanced in one of three ways: - multiple-choice quiz - short-answer quiz - restudy of material - control condition |
| study of if Testing Help in Real School Situations -- | - Exam was either multiple-choice or short-answer - Found testing effect (about equal for multiple-choice and short-answer quizzes) on both exam formats |
| Note that, although testing helps learning, | effect is modest in size. |
| Isolation (von Restorff) effect: | Unique items are remembered better (e.g.,RNFB7MHSD) - Memory for nearby items (e.g., B and M) may be impaired |
| Meaningfulness makes material more distinctive. Many stimulus characteristics are correlated with meaningfulness: | - Frequency of occurrence – Pronounceability – Imageability – More associations to other ideas and knowledge |
| in general, emotional/traumatic events are | distinctive and memorable |
| Flashbulb memories | Subjectively vivid, detailed memories that can be produced by unexpected and emotionally important events |
| BUT ARE FLASHBULB MEMORIES ACCURATE? | This is less clear - Confidence in memories stayed high even as many reports were inconsistent with original recall. Inaccurate details tended to be repeated on later tests. |
| Depth of Processing: Assumptions | • Processing goes through ordered stages • Memorability depends upon depth to which information had been processed. Best memory is for information that received deep processing |
| Maintenance rehearsal | a form of shallow processing, a recycling of information in order to keep it available in short-term memory or the phonological store. |
| when/how to use maintenance rehearsal | - short term retention - use maintenance rehearsal if know uninterrupted rehearsal until time fo recall |
| Elaborative rehearsal | in which to-be-remembered material is related to other information - active or deliberate attempt to cognitively interact with, reflect on, or use the to-be-remembered information |
| Typical Study Contrasting Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal | another ss sorry folks |
| The Generation Effect | Information you create yourself is better remembered than information presented to you - Study list is composed of pairs, some read, others generated - Memory is better for generated words (e.g., BABY, COLD) than for read words (e.g., ATTORNEY, HAPPY) |
| A Warning: We Can’t Ignore Retrieval Fisher & Craik (1977) | Encoding: (Retrieval) Rhyme Meaning Rhyme .40 .10 Meaning .29 .78 |
| STORAGE | The creation of a memory trace (or engram) corresponding to an experienced event. - elieved to contain contextual features that allow the remember to know when and where the event occurred |
| People have above-chance memory for many what | features of an event (e.g., voice of a spoken word; typeface of a printed word). |
| Ebbinghaus was the first to | ystematically document forgetting by examining savings (his measure of memory) as a function of time since original learning. |
| the forgetting learning curve | monotonic and negatively accelerated: The most forgetting occurs immediately after learning, and the rate of forgetting is always slowing. However, the total amount of information lost increases over time. |
| It is a mistake to believe that storage | is a passive process - The memory trace is believed to go through a series of changes after it is formed. The most analyzed such change is consolidation. |
| Retrograde Amnesia | strong shock administered to brain as treatment for depression |
| Henry Molaison | - Brain (hippocampus) damaged as a result of surgery for epilepsy - Seemingly almost complete anterograde amnesia |
| what did henry molaison retain in terms of memory function | – Little loss of information learned as a young man – Verbal performance influenced by recent experiences – Improvement in motor skills without remembering – Moved several times and could draw floor plans – Emotional states could persist |
| henry mokaison retograde amnesia | Although anterograde amnesia was his primary symptom, he showed some retrograde amnesia: Spotty memory for events in the years immediately preceding his operation. Earlier memories (i.e., from childhood and teen years) seemed fine. |
| Ribot’s gradient | retrograde amnesia following injury tended to be strongest for memories closest in time to the injury - ECT would disrupt recent memories but would have less of an effect with older memories. |
| Typically, retrograde amnesia following concussion | shrinks over time but is permanent for events close to the injury |
| Consolidation Theory | memories start off in temporary form and that over time memories change into a more permanent form. Before this consolidation takes place, the memory is vulnerable to loss or disruption |
| the time course of consolidation varies drastically depending on the species and the time of learning | within an hour for instrumental conditioning in rats? years for episodic memories in humans? |
| Consolidation may be disrupted by | trauma, electroconvulsive shock, and certain drugs |
| Long-term potentiation | Repetitive stimulation of one cell (or set of cells) enhances the capacity for adjacent cells to be triggered |
| One possible way consolidation may happen neurally is through | changes at the synaptic level (e.g., long-term potentiation in hippocampal cells) |
| Reconsolidation Theory | when a memory is retrieved, it returns to its temporary, vulnerable form. The memory trace is susceptible to change or alteration at this time - This has been shown repeatedly in animal-conditioning - Human memory may also show this |
| vWhat is certain about forgettinga | We have far more information available in memory than we can remember at any one time, so much of forgetting is retrieval failure |
| Available memories | memories present in storage |
| Accessible memories | memories that can be retrieved at a particular time |
| Hypermnesia | remembering that improves over successive attempts at reproduction of the studied material; repeated testing leads to higher levels of recall |
| how do we find hypermnesia | The number of items recalled on the current trial but not recalled previously (Gains) and the number of items recalled on previous trials but not recalled on the current trial (Losses). When Gains outnumber Losses, hypermnesia is found. |
| Hypermnesia is especially likely to be found when the items are | especially memorable and distinctive (e.g., found more easily in memory for list of pictures than for list of words) |
| Retrieval is Cue Dependent: | Encoding-Specificity Principle |
| Encoding-Specificity Principle | Memory traces are not copies of events but complex records, retrieval is always cued - Distinction btwn available memories + accessible memories - Environment may form part of memory cue - A cue work to extent it overlaps w/ info in memory trace |
| Interference | response competition may be one cause - proactive - retroactive |
| Proactive | caused by earlier information |
| Retroactive | caused by later information |
| how is interference often studied | n paired-associate learning using an A-B, A-C design |
| two facts to explain for the cause of interferance | - Learning an interfering list with the same stimulus terms impairs memory for the list you’re trying to remember. - he more times you practice the interfering list, the greater the interference on the target list. |
| response competition | potential cause of interference - Retrieval is a competitive process - Responses with strong associations with the stimulus term are more likely to be recalled. |
| lack of list differentiation | potential cause of interference - Subjects have to remember which list particular response from - Even if successfully retrieve correct response, they incorrect if decide not to emit that response bc they mistakenly believe it came from wrong list |
| Response competition and lack of list differentiation are likely to be the cause of | proactive interference |
| retroactive interference may involve an additional process, called | unlearning |
| unlearning | as subjects learn the A-C list in an A-B, A-C design, they deliberately inhibit (or break) the A-B associations in a process analogous to extinction in conditioning |
| Misinformation Effect in Eyewitness Testimony | – Exposure to original event (e.g., film of auto accident) – Exposure to questions, including one potentially misleading one – Later test on memory designed to see if misleading question altered memory for original event |
| DRM Procedure | - Give subjects list containing sets of words, all related to a single (unpresented) critical item - False memory very high for critical item |
| Psychogenic amnesia | esults from psychological trauma. This is almost always retrograde: there is forgetting for the past, or some part of the past, that precededthe trauma. |
| Capgras Syndrome | - affected individual recognizes familiar people but emotion of recognition is missing - person infers these other familiar-looking people must be imposters |
| Metacognition | Knowledge about cognition, our beliefs and self-knowledge about how we learn and think. |
| metamemory | our knowledge about memory. - estimates about the difficulty of learning certain materials, strategies we think will be most useful, awareness of what we know and do not know |
| Feeling of knowing | Ratings taken after unsuccessful recall in which subject indicates probability that the answer would be recognized |
| Tip of the tongue state | After failing to retrieve a word given the definition, a person is often able to report some information about unretrieved information (e.g., how many syllables or first letter in word) |
| memory self-efficacy | knowledge of how good our own memories are - eople can often judge how effectively their memories will operate in a particular situation. |
| Can Animals Show Metacognition? | Very controversial topic. Two popular methodologies: - Uncertainty response - Directed forgetting |
| Uncertainty response | Strategically declining to answer difficult questions. Correct answers get reward, incorrect answers get timeout, and animals can choose to move on to next trial without answering (uncertainty response). |
| when is metacognition shown in uncertainty response | if performance is better when subjects can skip responding to some items by using uncertainty response on hardest trials. Some monkeys, apes, and dolphins have shown this but not other animals |
| Directed forgetting | s performance worse when a test is not expected? This implies some sort of metacognitive control of rehearsal or attention. |
| Directed Forgetting in Humans | the difference in remembering words if told you will need to recall or forget them |
| evidence for directed forgetting in pigeons. | Pigeons perform better on trials containing an R signal than on trials containing an F signal. - rant argued that pigeons can deliberately rehearse a stimulus if they are expecting a test on it. |
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atallarida