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Psychology
FINAL Part 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| skinner box is described as a(n)? | operant conditioning chamber, -ctrled lab apparatus used to study animal behavior and learning through reinforcement and punishment. - B.F. Skinner, -contains a lever/key that an animal can interact with to receive rewards or avoid punishments |
| shaping | behavioral conditioning technique -Instead of waiting for a complex, new behavior to occur, the instructor reinforces small, progressive steps toward the goal - highly effective for training, education, therapy |
| purchasing lottery tickets is reinforced on what type of reinforcement schedule? | variable-ratio schedule -# of responses (tickets purchased) required to receive reinforcement (winning) varies unpredictably, creating high, steady rates of behavior. The unpredictability of the reward keeps individuals playing, similar to slot machines. |
| latent learning | a form of knowledge acquisition that occurs without immediate reinforcement or obvious demonstration, remaining hidden until a specific reason or incentive arises to use it. |
| observational learning...describe +who discovered it | process of acquiring new behaviors, info/skills by watching others - psychologist Albert Bandura in the 1960s-70s -Bobo Doll experiment (1961)—demonstrates people, imitate behaviors (especially aggressive ones) by observing, retaining, +modeling them. |
| encoding in memory refers to...? | the initial, selective process of perceiving, interpreting, and converting sensory input (sights, sounds, meanings) into a neural construct that the brain can store and later retrieve. |
| retrieval in memory refers to...? | the cognitive process of accessing, recovering, and bringing stored information from long-term memory back into conscious awareness |
| rehearsal in memory refers to...? | the cognitive process of mentally repeating or actively processing information to retain it in short-term memory or transfer it into long-term memory. |
| serial order effect in STM | the tendency to recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items in a sequence better than middle items, forming a U-shaped curve |
| mnemonic devices... major ones | techniques, enhance memory by using patterns, associations, + imagery - turn complex info to easier formats, s -acronyms (HOMES),("Never Eat Shredded Wheat"), rhyming ("I before E..."), chunking (phone numbers), and the Method of Loci (memory palace). |
| chunking | a cognitive psychology technique that organizes individual pieces of information into50 fewer, meaningful units (chunks) to expand working memory capacity |
| method of loci | an ancient mnemonic strategy that improves memory by anchoring information to specific, familiar physical locations (loci) |
| echoic memory | a type of sensory memory that acts as an ultra-short-term buffer for auditory information, lasting roughly 3 to 4 seconds |
| type of memory which is said to be unlimited? | Long-term memory - essentially unlimited storage capacity, capable of -holds vast amounts of infor for years/ifetime. -permanent repository for knowledge, experiences, and skills, |
| eyewitness testimony + memory in men vs. women | women often recall more person-related details (clothing, appearance), while men may recall more environmental details. |
| state dependent memory | the phenomenon where information learned in a particular internal state—such as physiological condition, mood, or drug-induced state—is more easily recalled when the person is in that same state again |
| iconic memory | a type of sensory memory that acts as a fleeting, high-capacity visual "snapshot" of the environment, lasting for only a fraction of a second (roughly 250–1000 milliseconds) before fading -"flashbulb" |
| what's the approximate amt of info that can be stored +retained in STM | 15 to 30 seconds. |
| use of free association is central to what therapy + who created it? | psychoanalysis (and its modern derivative, psychodynamic therapy -created by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century (specifically between 1892 and 1895) as a fundamental technique to access a patient's unconscious mind |
| according to freud, how does the unconscious mind affect a person's decisions? | directly influencing decisions, behaviors, and emotions without conscious awareness. This "dynamic" unconscious drives behavior, with impulses—often sexual or aggressive—continuously pushing for gratification. |
| what did freud believe was the "royal route to the unconscious"? | dreams |
| delusions | fixed, false beliefs held with absolute certainty despite clear contradictory evidence, often arising from underlying mental health issues, neurological conditions, or extreme stress. -granger |
| medical model approach | framework that views health as the absence of disease, focusing on diagnosing, treating, and curing physical or mental illnesses through objective, scientific, and biological means. |
| MAJOR factors that contribute to schizophrenia | high heritability (60-80% risk), abnormal brain chemistry (dopamine/glutamate), prenatal issues, childhood trauma, and adolescent substance use. |
| psychotic disorders | severe mental illnesses that cause a loss of contact with reality, characterized primarily by hallucinations (false perceptions) and delusions (false beliefs). |
| psychoanalytic therapy | an in-depth, long-term form of talk therapy based on Sigmund Freud’s theories, aiming to uncover unconscious conflicts, repressed emotions, and past traumas to resolve current mental health issues. |
| major diagnostic criteria (DSM5) for OCD | the presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both, which are time-consuming (more than one hour per day) or cause significant distress/impairment in functioning. |
| differences btw hallucinations+delusions? | Hallucinations are false sensory perceptions (seeing, hearing, or feeling things not present), while delusions are firm, false beliefs held despite contrary evidence. |
| drugs that block dopamine receptors reduce what kind of symptoms in schizo? positive or negative? | positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. These medications, known as dopamine antagonists or antipsychotics, help control excess dopamine activity in the brain's mesolimbic pathway |
| what's the current theory on why women are less likely to be diagnosed w/schizo? | women are less likely to be diagnosed early or with the same severity due to a combination of hormonal protection, later onset of symptoms, and different clinical presentations. |
| are there differences in the severity in symptoms btw women + men w/ schizo? | Yes-significant differences severity + presentation of symptoms btw men + women w/ schizo -men earlier onset, more severe negative symptoms,+poorer social functioning -women display more affective (mood) symptoms, better treatment response+ later onset |
| which bipolar disorder is most likely to have psychotic episodes during their manic stage? | Bipolar I disorder |
| folks w/ bipolar 1 can feel rested with as little as ______ hours of sleep | 4 hours of sleep, or sometimes even less, due to elevated mood preventing feelings of exhaustion. However, this "decreased need for sleep" is a hallmark symptom of mania, not sustainable healthy rest. |
| dysthymic disorder | chronic form of depression that lasts for at least two years (one year for children) ex: ehyore - symptoms generally milder than major depression, they are long-lasting, often featuring a persistent low mood, hopelessness, low energy, + low self-esteem |
| anxiety disorders -NT involved -type of meds prescribed -type of psychotherapy used | -GABA -Serotonin -Norepinephrine -Glutamate -Dopamine - SSRIs and SNRIs -Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) |
| which type of folks (gender, socioeconomic, race) are most vulnerable to suicide? | -lower economic classes -minorities -Men are the gender most vulnerable to dying by suicide, |
| most pervasive class of all psychological disorders | Anxiety disorders - 30% of adults at some point in their lives. This category includes generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder, representing a major global burden |
| reliability of the DSM | mixed, - "good" to "excellent" consistency for certain conditions (e.g., substance use disorders) - "poor" to "fair" or others in field trials. -designed to standardize psychiatric diagnosis, DSM-5 achieved lower reliability compared to earliers |
| 2 primary uses/purposes for the DSM | -standardized, objective criteria for clinicians to accurately diagnose mental health conditions -facilitating consistent communication, research, and treatment planning among professionals. |
| self-fulfilling prophecies | psychological phenomenon - initially false belief/ expectation leads to behaviors that cause that expectation to come true -feedback loop, internal beliefs shape actions, ultimately forcing reality to match the original, often subconscious, prediction |
| bipolar 1 + bipolar 2 | -Bipolar 1 involves severe mania, often requiring hospitalization and potentially featuring psychosis -bipolar 2 is characterized by less intense, elevated moods called hypomania and deeper, more frequent, or longer-lasting depressive episodes. |
| major diagnostic criteria (DSM5) for schizo | 6-month period of disturbance including at least one month of active-phase symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, or negative symptoms) |
| brain abnormalities associated w/ schizo | reduced gray matter in the prefrontal and temporal areas, enlarged ventricles, and reduced synaptic density. These changes, involving impaired neural connectivity, are often present before the onset of psychosis and can progress over time. |
| major diagnostic criteria (DSM5) for GAD | excessive, uncontrollable worry about various topics for at least six months, accompanied by at least three physical or cognitive symptoms (e.g., restlessness, fatigue, muscle tension) that cause significant distress or impairment |
| suicide rates of whites/blacks + men/women | highest among white males (24.8 per 100,000) and lowest among black females (3.3 per 100,000), - White individuals generally have higher rates than black individualsg - with firearms being the leading method. |
| antisocial personality disorder | characterized by a long-term pattern of manipulating, exploiting violating the rights of others without remorse. - behave irresponsibly, act impulsively, disregard safety, and engage in illegal activities |
| what is lithium used to treat? | bipolar disorder |
| do we know exactly how lithium works? | No, While it has been used for decades and is highly effective, its precise mechanism is complex and not fully understood, acting on multiple neurotransmitters, intracellular signaling pathways, and neuroprotective mechanisms rather than a single target. |
| lithium can potentionally cause damage to what part of the body? therefore, annual blood tests are required to check for warning signs of this damage | liver damage |
| what's the new way that scientists are looking @ delivering lithium to a bipolar paitent that prevents the damage mentioned in question 169? | utilizing patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells identify+respond w/out experiencing toxicity. - creates neurons, patient's own skin/blood cells, -predict treatment + test for safer dosing - addressing cellular hypersensitivity in bps |
| diagnostic criteria of paranoid schizophrenia | intense, persistent delusions and auditory hallucinations. Diagnosis requires at least two major symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech) for 1 month, lasting 6+ months total. |
| which NTs are associated w/ MDD? | serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) |
| early times believe mental illnesses were caused by what? | supernatural forces, demonic possession, witchcraft, or curses from angry gods |
| what drug can elicit symptoms similar to schizo? | psychosis (hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia) during acute intoxication or withdrawal. These substances are often categorized by how they mimic specific "symptom clusters" of the disorder -cannabis, mj |
| low birth weight is a known risk factor for what disorder? | cerebral palsy] and other neurodevelopmental issues. It is also strongly linked to chronic conditions in adulthood, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension. |
| what's the diagnostic criteria for catatonic schizo? | 3 or more of 12 key psychomotor features. Key symptoms include stupor, catalepsy (fixed posture), waxy flexibility, mutism, and severe agitation. These symptoms represent a significant change in behavior. |
| word salads are associated w/ what type of schizo? | disorganized schizophrenia (formerly known as hebephrenic schizophrenia). It is characterized by a jumbled, incoherent mix of random words and phrases that lacks logical meaning. |
| PTSD -describe -give causes | post traumatic stress disorder -Witnessing or participating in combat. Witnessing someone else being hurt or killed. Facing a threat of violence or harm, including natural disasters or car crashes. Having little to no support after a traumatic event. |
| what are the most common side effects to ECT? | confusion, memory loss, headaches, muscle aches, and nausea |
| what are the most common side effects to TMS/ rTMS? | mild-to-moderate headache (45–65% incidence), followed by scalp discomfort, tingling or facial twitching, and lightheadednes |
| although ECT+ TMS are used on folks w/ MDD, they're SPECIFICALLY used on MDD paitents who are? 2 possible answers | -Treatment-Resistant (Failed two or more antidepressant medications) -Experiencing Severe or Acute Symptoms (Such as Severe/Psychotic Depression, High Suicide Risk, or Catatonia): |
| obsessions vs. compulsions | -Obsessions are persistent, unwanted, and distressing intrusive thoughts, urges, or images, - compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to neutralize the anxiety caused by those obsessions. |
| major contribution Philip Pinel played in the treatment of the mentally ill | intro of "moral treatment" - pioneering of humanitarian, psychiatric care, late 18th-century France. -chief physician @ Bicêtre asylum he famously unchained patients, replacing brutal physical restraints (care, routines, and individualized therapy) |
| most often + accurate warning sign of suicide is...? | wanting to die, feeling hopeless, trapped, or being a burden to others. These verbal cues, along with seeking methods (e.g., buying a gun, stockpiling pills) or sudden, unexplainable, calm behavior, are critical indicators of imminent risk |
| systematic desensitization -alternate/new name | graduated exposure therapy used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders. - Joseph Wolpe in the 1950s, it is based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition, which is the idea that anxiety and relaxation cannot coexist simultaneously. |
| transference -can it be a good thing for the client? | allows for the unconscious to become conscious, helping to show clients how their transference reactions are actually their unconscious ways of making sense of the world around them—often in distorted ways.-goodwillhunting |
| what NT does Prozac regulate? | serotonin (\(5\)-HT) by acting as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). It works by blocking the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into neurons, increasing its availability in the brain to improve mood, behavior, and anxiety. |
| exposure therapy | a highly effective, evidence-based psychological treatment that helps individuals confront fears, anxieties, and traumatic memories in a safe, controlled environment. |
| mary cover jones + her rabbit experiment | pioneered behavioral therapy -eliminating a 3-year-old boy s fear of white rabbit. - counterconditioning, paired presence of the rabbit with pleasant stimuli (food) and used social imitation to recondition Peter's fear response into a positive one. |
| client-centered therapy -associated w/ what therapy + what therapist | Person-centered therapy, ( non-directive, client-centered, or Rogerian therapy) -Carl Rogers in the early 1940s. This form of psychotherapy is grounded in the idea that people are inherently motivated toward achieving positive psychological functioning |
| which psychotherapy relies on self-healing + the client discovering their own ways to deal w/ their difficulties? | Person-centered therapy ( Client-Centered/Rogerian therapy) -relying on self-healing + client-driven discovery. -individuals have capacity for growth with the therapist serving as a supportive facilitator rather than a director, clients find solutions |
| light exposure therapy | uses 10,000-lux light box to treat Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), -regulating brain chemicals and circadian rhythms. It involves sitting near the light for 30 minutes, usually in the morning, starting in fall and continuing through spring. |
| active listening | structured technique - Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach - fully focusing on, understanding, and reflecting back both the words+ emotions ofspeaker. -counseling tool that fosters trust, empathy, +therapeutic alliance, validating speaker's experiences. |
| EMDR -this therapy is the "gold standard" for what disorder? | Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing -,bilateral stimulation—such as guided eye movements -focusing on traumatic memories, -helps brain reprocess memories - typically within 1–3 months of weekly sessions. -PTSD and trauma-related disorder |
| token economy | a behavioral modification system based on operant conditioning, where individuals earn tokens (e.g., stickers, points) for exhibiting desired target behaviors |
| role-playing | a therapeutic technique where clients act out scenarios, often within Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), to rehearse new behaviors, challenge negative thoughts, and improve social skills in a safe environment |
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