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Psychology
FINAL Part 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| who founded functionalism? | William James -1890 book, The Principles of Psychology, established the school's focus on how mental activities and consciousness help an organism adapt to its environment, serving as an early 20th-century American counter to German structuralism. |
| nature vs. nuture -define + know examples | nature: biological makeup, genetic nuture: way you were raised |
| who established the 1st psychological laboratory? | Wilhelm Wundt -1879 at the University of Leipzig in Germany -"father of experimental psychology" |
| what is a double-blind procedure? | clinical research method - both the participants +researchers are blinded to which treatment -prevents both participant +researcher bias, -results are not influenced by expectations. It is considered the gold standard for clinical trials. |
| what is naturalistic observation? | researchinvolving the unobtrusive monitoring of subjects—humans/animals—in natural environment w/o interference -gathering authentic data by observing behaviors as they occur, -w/o the subjects knowing they are being watched to prevent behavior change |
| double blind procedures minimize outcome differences btw experimental +control conditions that can be attributed to...? | placebo effects and researcher bias. By ensuring neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the actual treatment, this method controls for expectations and subjective interpretations |
| dependent variable in an experiment? | the specific factor being measured, observed, or tested in an experiment, which changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
| what is mode? | most recurring # |
| how to calculate the mean? | -add #'s -divide by amount of #'s |
| which method runs a risk of collecting evidence that may be unrepresentative of what is generally true? | case study method runs the greatest risk of collecting unrepresentative evidence. Because case studies focus on a single individual or small group, their unique, extreme, or rare experiences may not accurately reflect general, population-wide truths. |
| a correlation of +.70 btw height and popularity indicates that...? | strong positive relationship, meaning that taller children tend to be more popular among their peers, and shorter children tend to be less popular. This statistical association highlights that as height increases, popularity also tends to increase. |
| ctrl conditions represent what in different experiments? | the standard or "normal" state against which experimental changes are measured. They allow researchers to isolate the effect of an independent variable by comparing results with a group that receives no treatment, a placebo, or a standard treatment. |
| independent variable in an experiment? | specific factor, trait, or condition that a researcher deliberately manipulates, changes, or selects in an experiment to test its effect on a dependent variable. |
| what is median? | number in the middle of data set -line up #'s least to greatest -if 2, add middle two and divide by 2 |
| explain phrenology | Franz Joseph Gall -claimed that personality, character traits, and intelligence could be determined by measuring bumps, indentations, and the overall shape of the human skull. |
| what is the function of dendrites? | act as "antennas" to receive chemical +electrical signals from other neurons and transfer them to the cell body (soma). -act as the primary input surface for nerve cells, integrating this info to facilitate learning, memory, and neuronal communication. |
| what is the longest part of a motor neuron? | the axon. As a long, slender, cable-like extension, the axon transmits electrical impulses away from the neuron’s cell body, often extending over 1 meter from the spinal cord to muscles in the limbs. |
| what's the name of the fatty substance found on some neurons which prevents cross circuiting? | myelin sheath |
| what is the minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse known as? | the threshold. When this specific level of depolarization (often around \(-55\) mV) is reached, it initiates an action potential—a brief electrical impulse that travels down the neuron's axon. |
| what's the microscopic gap btw a sending neuron + a recieving neuron called? | synapse or synaptic cleft |
| what are the functions of neurotransmitters? | -Acetylcholine: learn/mem+muscle -dope: reward, motiv+motor control-Sero:mood, appetite, sleep,temp.-Gamma(GABA): main inhibitory NT, reduce excitability + ctrl anx.-Gluta: excitatory,memory/learning-Nore: fof, heart rate,bloodpreEndorp: pain relief |
| alzheimer's disease is closely linked to this neurotransmitter? | acetylcholine |
| too many dopamine receptors are linked to what psychological disorder? | schizophrenia |
| too little serotonin is linked to what 2 classes of disorders? | mood disorders (such as depression and anxiety disorders) and various neuropsychiatric or behavioral disorders |
| what are agonists? | chemical substance -naturally or ingested —that bind to synaptic receptors in the brain and activate them to increase the effects of neurotransmitters -enhance neural signaling, - "key" that fits into a receptor lock to trigger a specific response |
| what are antagonists? | chemicals or drugs that bind to synaptic receptors and inhibit or block the action of neurotransmitters, preventing them from producing a reaction. |
| what are interneurons? | specialized nerve cells within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that connect sensory and motor neurons, acting as the primary processors of information. |
| why are most psychological disorders often referred to as "chemical imbalances"? | they are believed to involve disruptions in neurotransmitters (like serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine) that facilitate brain communication, |
| the knee jerk response is processed by what type of neurons + where are they located? | lumbar spinal cord (specifically levels L2-L4) via a simple monosynaptic circuit. It utilizes sensory neurons (afferent) to detect stretch and alpha motor neurons (efferent) to contract the quadriceps muscle, resulting in a rapid involuntary kick |
| surgical destruction of the brain is called? | ablation or lesioning - This process, used in specialized neurosurgery to treat conditions like Parkinson's or severe mental illness, involves deliberately removing, destroying, or cutting specific areas of the brain to disrupt dysfunctional pathways |
| explain what an EEG does + what it's typically used for? | electroencephalogram (EEG) -noninvasive, painless medical test - records the electrical activity of the brain -detecting tiny electrical charges generated (neurons) communicating with each other - displayed as wavy lines on a computer screen. |
| what lobe of the brain senses hot or cold? | parietal lobe is primarily responsible for sensing, interpreting, and processing hot and cold temperatures, as well as touch and pain. - parietal lobe detects sensations, -hypothalamus (located at the base of the brain) acts as the body’s thermostat |
| auditory lobe of the brain | temporal lobe of the brain. Specifically, it is situated on the superior temporal gyrus, extending into the lateral sulcus within Heschl's gyri. This region receives auditory data to identify sound frequency, pitch, and location. |
| visual lobe of the brain | occipital lobe, - back of the skull. - smallest of 24 main brain lobes -responsible for processing, interpreting, and recognizing visual info, including color, form, and motion. |
| where do auditory hallucinations occur in the brain? | the left temporoparietal junction (Wernicke's area), the auditory cortex (superior temporal gyrus), and the frontotemporal language regions |
| which part of the brain is associated w/ the muscle movements involved in speech? | Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere (in most people), is primarily responsible for coordinating the muscle movements involved in speech production. |
| what does plasticity mean? | the brain's ability to change, adapt, and reorganize its structure and function throughout life in response to experiences, learning, or injury |
| what's the master gland of the endocrine system? | The pituitary gland |
| where are hormones released in? | bloodstream |
| For what reason would you cut the corpus callosum? | to treat severe, drug-resistant epilepsy, specifically to stop violent seizures from spreading between brain hemispheres. |
| describe the function of the corpus callosum? | facilitates interhemispheric transfer of information—including sensory, motor, and cognitive data—ensuring integrated, synchronized brain function, such as coordinating bimanual movements and combining visual fields. |
| for what purpose would a person need a PET scan? what does it show? | detect/monitor cancer, heart disease, and brain disorders -showi how tissues+ organs function @ cellular level. -metabolic activity, to pinpoint tumors, measure treatment effectiveness, evaluate blood flow+ detect dementia/epilepsy. |
| what part of the ear is involved in motion sickness? | caused by overstimulation of the vestibular system in inner ear, within the semicircular canals. -filled with fluid called endolymph, detect head rotation. Too much fluid buildup (endolymph) in the inner ear’s labyrinth causes Ménière's disease. |
| what do newborns show the greatest visual interest in? | human faces, particularly their parents'. They prefer high-contrast, bold, black-and-white patterns and objects 8–12 inches away, |
| what regulates the amt of light entering the eye? | pupil:The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to pass through. -iris also uses muscles to change pupil size. |
| place theory as it pertains to hearing | pitch perception relies on the specific location of maximum excitation along the cochlea's basilar membrane, with high frequencies stimulating the base and low frequencies activating the apex |
| the cochlea is to the ear as _________ is to the eye | the retina is to the eye. -both structures function as transducers, converting sensory stimuli (sound waves in the cochlea, light in the retina) into neural signals for the brain to proces |
| the amt of stimulation a person needs to detect stimulus 50% of the time is called? | absolute threshold. It represents the lowest level of intensity for a stimulus—such as light, sound, or pressure—to be detected by the human senses at least half of the time. |
| techinical name for sleepwalking | somnambulism |
| sleep stage where most vivid dreams occur in | Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is the stage where most vivid, intense, and emotional dreams occur |
| sleep disorder associated w/ obesity | sleep apnea |
| sunlight influences the production of what hormone? | serotonin (the "feel-good" hormone) and melatonin (the sleep hormone) |
| slow brain waves associated w/ stage 3 + stage 4 are called? | delta waves. These high-amplitude, low-frequency waves (usually below 4 Hz) are characteristic of Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS), which is critical for physical repair and memory consolidation. |
| sleep disorder that is most commonly associated w/ sleepwalking | Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) which disrupt deep, non-REM sleep. It is classified as a NREM parasomnia, often triggered by sleep deprivation, stress, or other conditions that cause frequent arousal from deep sleep. |
| regular body cycles that occur on a 24-hour schedule are known as? | circadian rhythms. - internal clocks, regulate sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, metabolism, and body temperature, -driven by a master clock in the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) -influenced by environmental cues like light and darkness. |
| narcolepsy | chronic, lifelong neurological disorder characterized by the brain's inability to regulate sleep-wake cycles, leading to excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden "sleep attacks," and potential cataplexy (sudden muscle weakness). |
| how does over the counter sleep meds + alcohol affect our sleep patterns? | disrupts - extreme sedation -sleep fragmentation, -reduced REM sleep. While you may fall asleep faster, this mixture severely inhibits deep, restorative sleep, leading to next-day grogginess, impaired memory, and potentially dangerous breathing issues |
| who discovered hypnosis? | Franz Anton Mesmer in the late 18th century "animal magnetism," ( mesmerism) -"hypnosis",Scottish surgeon James Braid in the mid-19th century, who determined it was a psychological phenomenon, not a magnetic force |
| what is tolerance? | permissive attitude toward different beliefs, behaviors, or races; and the physiological "window of tolerance," which refers to the optimal zone of nervous system arousal where a person can function and manage emotions effectively. |
| active ingredient in marijuana | delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), |
| hypothesis | a precise, testable, and falsifiable statement predicting the outcome of a study, usually detailing the relationship between an independent variable (cause) and a dependent variable (effect) |
| operant conditioning | a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, where an association is made between a behavior and a consequence. - B.F. Skinner - reinforcement to increase behaviors and punishment to decrease them, -skinner box |
| who conducted the 1st experimental studies of associative learning? | Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) conducted 1st experimental studies of associative learning late 1890s. -study of classical conditioning by demonstrating that dogs could learn to associate a ns (e.g., a bell) w/ food -triggering salivation at the sound alone. |
| john b. watson is considered the father of what type of psych? | behaviorism -emphasizes the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental states. He officially founded this perspective with his 1913 lecture, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," often called the "behaviorist manifesto". |
| UCS in Ivan Pavlov's experiments | food, usually meat powder |
| UCR in Ivan Pavlov's experiments | the automatic, natural, and unlearned reaction of salivation. |
| acquisition | initial stage of learning when response is first established +gradually strengthened, -classical or operant conditioning. It marks the phase where an association is formed between a stimulus and a response, or when a behavior is consistently reinforced. |
| generalization + classical conditioning | tendency of a conditioned subject to produce (CR) to stimuli that are similar, but not identical - allows learning to be applied to new, similar situations, such as fearing all dogs after being bitten by one, rather specific dog involved. |
| john b. watson's experiment w/ Little Albert demostrates/prove what...? | emotional responses—specifically fear—can be conditioned in humans through classical conditioning. By pairing a white rat with a loud, startling noise, Watson showed that a neutral stimulus can trigger fear, which can generalize to similar furry objects |
| which 2 senses are the chemical senses? | smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation) |
| habituation | a fundamental form of non-associative learning where an organism’s response to a repeated, harmless stimulus decreases over time. |
| blind spot located in what area of the retina? | where the optic nerve exits the retina -no rods/cones |
| what's the olfactory sense? | sense of smell |
| in what part/region of the brain is the olfactory sense processed? | temporal lobe |
| olfactory sense is more commonly known as...? | sense of smell |
| transduction | the fundamental sensory process of converting physical energy—such as light, sound, or pressure—into electrical neural signals that the brain can interpret |
| according to john locke, how do people develop their personality/ character traits? | experience and education, starting as a tabula rasa (blank slate). Personal identity is formed through consciousness and memory, while character is shaped by habitual actions and education rather than innate ideas -environment + experience |
| did john locke's theory support nature or nuture? | nuture -empiricism |
| what device is used to record brain wave patterns? | electroencephalogram (EEG) machine |
| what stage of sleep does sleepwalking occur? | deep, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep |
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