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MEGA A&P FINAL P2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 5 Functions of the respiratory system | 1. Regulation of blood pH 2. Production of chemical signals 3. Voice production 4. Olfaction 5. Protection |
| There are several muscles of________ that act to_______ the volume of the thoracic cavity | inspiration increase |
| What are the muscles of inspiration? 4 | 1. Diaphragm 2. External intercostals 3. Pectoralis minor 4. Scalene muscles (deep muscles that connect to first rib and cervical vertebra) |
| The muscles of_______ are muscles that________ thoracic volume by depressing the ribs and sternum | expiration decrease |
| What are the muscles of expiration? 3 | 1. Internal intercostals 2. Transverse thoracics 3. Abdominal muscles |
| During _______, air flows ________ the lungs down its pressure gradient | inspiration into |
| During________, air flows_____ of the lungs down its pressure gradient | expiration out |
| Relate pressure and volume (Boyle’s law) with airflow | When lung volume increases, pressure decreases, drawing air in; when volume decreases, pressure increases, forcing air out |
| Partial pressure | In a mixture of gases, each constituent gas has a partial pressure when added together equals the pressure exerted by the mixture |
| Atmospheric pressure is due to | a mixture of gases, each of which is present in a different amount. |
| The term pressure is used to express | the amount of each gas in a mixture, which is comparable to using the term concentration for the solutes. |
| Gas exchange | partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries and between the tissues and the tissue capillaries are responsible for GAS EXCHANGE |
| Describe the organization of the respiratory membrane | The respiratory membrane is a ~0.5 thick blood-air barrier in the lungs, composed of three main layers: alveolar epithelium, a fused basement membrane, and capillary endothelium |
| The digestive system provides the body with | nutrients, water, and electrolytes essential for health |
| Digestive tract | 1. The oral cavity 2. Esophagus 3. Stomach 4. Small intestine 5. Large intestine rectum 6. Anus |
| Accessory organs | 1. Accessory organs 2. The liver 3. Pancreas 4. Gallbladder 5. Salivary glands |
| Carbohydrates are broken down to | monosaccharides |
| Lipids are broken down to fatty acids and | monoglycerides |
| Proteins are broken down to | amino acids :DD |
| Salivary amylase | is a product by salivary glands and beings breaking down carbs in your mouth |
| Pancreatic amylase is secreted by pancreas into | duodenum (first part of small intestines) breaks polysaccharides into smaller disaccharide |
| Lipids are molecules that are | insoluble in water (hydrophobic). |
| Lipids are broken down by special enzymes called | lipases. |
| Bile salts from liver + lipase from pancreas DO WHAT??? | breakdown lipids in duodenum. This chemical process is called emulsification!!! These two components continue digesting lipids allowing absorption by epithelium of small intestines. |
| Proteins are | taken into the body from a number of dietary sources. Enzymes that break down proteins are called proteases and often end with –in i.e. pepsin and trypsin |
| Pepsin | secreted from stomach break proteins into polypeptides. |
| Pancreatic enzymes | such as trypsin reduce polypeptides into peptides. |
| Peptidases in epithelium of small intestines can | convert these small peptides into single amino acids to be used as a building block for a future protein. |
| Insulin | RESPONSE TO HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS |
| Glucagon | RESPONSE TO LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS |
| Glucagon releases | ALPHA CELLS |
| Insulin releases | BETA CELLS |
| Diarrhea | Excessive water loss in stool (Runny shit) |
| Diarrhea is not a disease in itself, but is a | symptom of a wide range of disorders |
| Diarrhea results from either | a decrease in fluid absorption in the intestine or an increase in fluid secretion. |
| Symptoms can begin from as little as | 1-2 hours after bacterial toxins are ingested to as long as 24 hours or more for some strains of bacteria. Nearly any bacterial species is capable of causing diarrhea!!! |
| Some types of bacterial diarrhea are associated with severe | vomiting, whereas others are not. Some bacterial toxins also induce fever. |
| Diarrhea plays a crucial role in | clearing the bacteria that is found in the intestines at the beginning of an infection. |
| The two main routes that water can enter the lumen in response to an infection. | • 1. Dysregulation of ion channels & aquaporins (water channels) of mucosal layer. • 2. Damage to tight junctions that hold epithelial cells together. Breaking this barrier allows for water to pass between cells into lumen. |
| Treatment of diarrhea involves | replacing lost fluids and ions. In most cases oral rehydration with drinks similar to Gatorade are sufficient. More severe cases may require IV rehydration. |
| Systemic consequences of diarrhea | Excessive fluid and electrolyte loss during diarrhea disrupts normal water balance and triggers compensatory responses across multiple organ systems. |
| Identify the role of GLP1s | act as potent treatments for type 2 diabetes and chronic weight management by mimicking the natural hormone that regulates blood sugar and appetite |
| Describe where GLP1 is produced and how it is destroyed | primarily produced in the intestinal L-cells of the distal ileum and colon in response to food intake, with minor production in the pancreas and brain |
| Describe the physiological effects of GLP1s | They promote weight loss by signaling early satiety in the brain and slowing digestion, alongside beneficial effects on cardiovascular and metabolic health |
| Explain how GLP1 receptor agonists (GLP-RA) help regulate blood glucose and body weight | medications that mimic the natural GLP-1 hormone, regulating blood glucose by increasing glucose-dependent insulin secretion, reducing glucagon, and slowing gastric emptying. |
| Why GLP-1 RA are a public health game changer | GLP-1 drugs target two of the most common and costly diseases in the U.S: obesity and type 2 diabetes As of 2022-2023, approximately 42% of U.S adults are obese 1 in 8 Americans are living with diabetes (95% are type 2) |
| US function | filters blood to remove metabolic waste, toxins, and excess water, producing urine to maintain homeostasis |
| Functions of a kidney (7) | 1. Urine formation 2. Excretion 3. Regulation of blood volume an pressure 4. Regulation of blood solute concentrations 5. Regulation of extracellular pH 6. Regulation of red blood cell synthesis 7. Regulation of vitamin D synthesis |
| The nephrons are | the functional unit of the kidney |
| A nephron is composed of 2 major parts | Glomerular capsule (or Bowman's capsule) Renal tubule Many nephrons then connect to a shared collecting duct |
| 3 Steps in nephron function | 1. Glomerular filtration 2. Tubular reabsorption and secretion 3. Water conservation |
| Glomerular filtration | Here is where blood enters to be filtered. High osmotic pressure and high concentration of solutes in blood allows water and solutes to leave the blood and enter the capsule. This liquid that enters the nephron is called glomerular filtrate |
| Glomerulur filtration (GFR) is a | blood test that determines how much blood passes through these filters each minute |
| Tubular reabsorption and secretion | water and solutes (Na, K, Cl, glucose, amino acids) are reabsorbed from tubule into capillaries. Conversely, metabolic waste and other produces from the blood are secreted into the tubule |
| Water conservation | concentration of urine at collecting duct through reabsorption of water |
| Glometrular filtration rate (GFR): | determines how much blood passes through glomerulus GFR is very stable and does not significantly change even when there is a larger change of blood pressure. |
| The kidneys are organized into 2 major regions: | Renal cortex = superficial Renale medulla = deep |
| The cortex is the location for the | blood-filtering structures of the kidneys |
| The medulla is composed of many cone-shaped structures called | renal pyramids, whose bases project into the cortex |
| Renal papilla | the medullary tip of pyramid |
| Renal columns are | extensions of cortical tissue between each pyramid |
| Renal sinus is the | fat-filled cavity in the middle of the kidney that cushions important parts. Here a set of tubes collects the urine for movement to the urinary bladder |
| Explain how diabetes-related changes in kidney function contribute to increase in blood pressure over time | Diabetes-related kidney damage increases blood pressure over time primarily through structural damage to nephrons, causing sodium/water retention and activation of blood pressure-regulating hormones (RAAS) |
| What are the 2 most common causes of kidney failure? | Hypertension and diabetes mellitus are the most common cause of kidney failure Sugar in blood also damages kidney tubules |
| Sodium-glucose transport proteins (SGLTs) are membrane proteins that | cotransport glucose and sodium into cells, with SGLT2 being the primary renal glucose reabsorber |
| SGLT2 inhibitors provide significant benefits, including | reducing blood sugar, lowering blood pressure, and protecting against kidney and heart failure, regardless of diabetes status |
| The SRY gene provides | instructions for making a protein called the sex-determining region Y protein |
| The SRY protein functions as a | transcription factor, meaning it alters transcription (DNA into RNA) Simply, it turns genes ON or OFF |
| Homology | is a relationship defined between structures or DNA derived from a common ancestor Example: the head of the penis (glans) is developmentally homologous with the clitoris |
| Labia minora (female) is | Spongy urethra/penile shaft (male) |
| Labia majora (female) homologous to | Scrotum (male) |
| Functions of the male reproductive system: | Produce androgens, sex hormones, such as testosterone Reproduction through the formation of sperm (spermatogenesis) Delivery of sperm during sexual intercourse |
| Functions of the female RS (5) | 1. Produce androgens, sex hormones, such as estrogens and progesterone 2. Reproduction through the formation of an ovum 3. Sexual activity 4. Support the growth and surreal of an embryo from conception to birth 5. Nursing newborn into infancy |
| Ovaries | produce oocytes and sex hormones |
| Fallopian tubes | transport secondary oocytes in the direction of the uterus, fertilization occurs here |
| Uterus | muscular organ and site of implantation, placenta formation, and fetal development |
| Cervix | acts as a barrier to protect the uterus, allows passage of menstrual fluids to exit the body, produces cervical mucus that nourishes sperm and promotes fertility. During childbirth the cervix must dilate to pass the baby from uterus into vagina |
| Cervical cancer and HPV | Research over many years has confirmed that cervical cancer is most often caused by a sexually transmitted infection with HPV. there are over 100 related viruses in the HPV family. Strain determines outcome of infection |
| HPV is common across | all demographics, with the highest prevalence of HPV infections being females aged 18-24 |
| High risk variants of HPV block host cell’s ability to | prevent mutated cells from dividing |
| The protein p53 plays a vital role in | detecting mutations and preventing mutant cells from growing |
| High risk variants of HPV inhibit p53 | this permits the growth mutant and potentially cancerous cells |
| What all play significant roles in reducing the development of cervical cancer | Vaccines, protection, and screenings via a pap smear |
| Lactation feedback loop Stimulus | baby suckles on breast |
| Lactation feedback loop Receptor | sensory receptors in the skin of the breast detect the suckling, send impulses to hypothalamus |
| Lactation feedback loop Control Center | hypothalamus signals posterior pituitary to release oxytocin |
| Lactation feedback loop Effector | breast is stimulated to eject breast milk |
| Promoter regions | a region of the gene upstream of protein coding region |
| Promoters ensure that | Genes are transcribed at different levels for different tissues By varying gene expression, cells can adopt a wide range of functions |
| On a chromosome, genes are organized into segments of | exons and introns |
| Both exons and introns are transcribed into | RNA |
| Exons are the segments that | do code for a protein |
| Introns are the segments that | do not code for a protein 98% of human DNA does not code for a protein |
| These non-coding DNA segments were once thought of as junk DNA but are known to function in a process called | alternative splicing |
| Alternative splicing | is a cellular process in which exons from the same gene are joined in different combinations a post transitional modification allowing for increased diversity |
| 1 gene can generate different | mRNA transcripts |
| Each mRNA transcript can be translated into a | slightly different protein |
| These different protein structures will have | slightly different functions. ALL FROM A SINGLE GENE |
| The placenta is the only organ | linking two different individuals, mother and fetus, termed as blood-placental barrier |
| The functions of the blood-placental barrier are to | 1. Regulate material transfer between the maternal and fetal circulation 2. Exchange oxygen/nutrients from mother with water and CO2 from the embryo 3. Produces hormones 4. Transfer of immunity 5. General barrier protection of embryo |
| APGAR Scores | Physiological assessment of a newborn baby soon after birth |
| Acrocyanosis is an | episodic condition that causes a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes, usually in the hands and feet. This discoloration is caused by diminished oxyhemoglobin, which may be due to central or local tissue oxygenation defects |
| What does APGAR stand for | Appearance Pulse rate Grimace (crying) Activity (muscle activity) Respiratory effort |
| Congenital Disorder | Abnormalities present at birth, commonly known as birth defects |
| **Congenital Disorder 70% are unknown 15% are environmental factors 15% are known genetic cause | |
| Congenital heart defects (CHD) are | structural abnormalities of the heart present at birth CHD are the most common congenital disease in newborns 1 in 100 births |
| These septums remain open for as long as | 7 weeks after fertilization |
| ***So, blood from left heart mixed with blood from right heart | |
| ***Incomplete closure of these septums are the most common CHD. The holes may be very small or so large they are lethal (100-200 newborns a year |
Created by:
liladdoyle