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PSCL 313 - Exam #4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| observational learning | Change in behavior due to monitoring of events involving other individuals (usually conspecifics) |
| Examples of social influence on animal behavior that would NOT be classified as observational learning: | Contagion behavior, Motivational Influences |
| Contagion behavior | Predisposed tendencies to match specific behaviors of conspecifics, such as mobbing behavior or social eating |
| mobbing | (antipredator) |
| social eating | (a bird that had its fill will resume eating upon seeing another bird eating; Tolman, 1964) |
| Motivational Influences: | Mere presence of another animal may increase arousal levels, which can either improve or worsen performance (social facilitation/impairment effects) |
| Higher arousal increases w/ motivational influence for animals | number of strong responses but can hurt performance when subject has to emit weaker response - Presence of other baboon impairs response to less-probable stimuli |
| conspecifics | members of same species |
| can animals do observational learning? | Early research (including Thorndike and puzzle boxes) suggest no - HOWEVER found in later research |
| examples of animals observational learning | - Monkeys watching how to solve a problem - Seeing fear of snakes in film of monkeys can lead to fear of snakes |
| examples of animals observational learning food-related | - Birds learning to open milk bottles - Rats overcome food neophobia if they observe other rats eat food safely and can smell odor on their breath ( |
| Most mammals have ( what ) to imitate sounds | little or no ability - some marine animals can tho, esp dolphins |
| Birdsong | typically consists of sounds (1-10 s long), separated by silence. It reflects both heredity and learning |
| Template model of song learning | Born with crude template of song appropriate for species • p1: young birds memorize songs that fit their template • p2: Young bird attempts singing, matching vocal movements to sounds • p3: Bird learns when to sing songs, appropriate context for each |
| Unlike most mammals, humans can | imitate sounds - human speech may be learned in a way analogous to birdsong |
| humans may be born with a template for language | Humans are born with a Universal Grammar, a rough framework for language. In Chomsky’s view, the role of observational learning here is to apply this framework to the specific language you are trying to acquire |
| language template infants | – Human infants pay close attention to the speech they hear – Infants repeat sounds common to language spoken around them (Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1996) and master the basic sound (phonological) rules. |
| phonotactic rules | rules restricting the combination and ordering of sounds - also learned by children |
| Observational learning is driven by two types of factors | – Attentional factors – Retentional factors |
| demonstrations of observational learning in children | - Modeling of aggressive behavior (Bobo doll experiments) – Moral judgment in children – Observational learning and overcoming fear |
| Overimitation | the copying of causally irrelevant actions - also shown in human children |
| examples of overimitation | adult pulls a toy dinosaur from a jar by first rubbing the side of the jar with a feather before unscrewing the lid, the child will copy both actions. - may be due to a misunderstanding that first action is unnecessary. Other times, seems to be social. |
| Nonhuman animals do not show | overimitation with one exception |
| the overimitation exception | dogs - actions by their caregivers (e.g., touching dots on a wall before pushing open a door on the other side of the room blocking access to a treat). Dogs will usually not show overimitation of actions by a human stranger |
| Mirror neurons | type of brain cell that respond equally when an individual performs an action and when the individual witnesses someone else perform the same action. |
| how were mirror neurons first shown | single-cell recording |
| single-cell recording | individual neurons in the brains of macaque monkeys fired both when the monkeys grabbed an object and also when the monkeys watched another primate grab the same object - VERY SPECIFIC, exact actions |
| Speculation that similar processes may extend beyond observational learning of actions but may also | be involved in human empathy and in our understanding of the mental lives of others |
| spatial learning | What places might food be found? What places may predators be found? - one of the earliest topics studied in experimental psychology (rats in mazes) - Human have excellent spatial memory |
| Long-Distance Travel by Animals: Homing Pigeons | Homing pigeons can return to their loft on the same day that they are released some 600 miles away. |
| Homing Pigeons: how do they do it? | – Landmarks – Retracing outward route – Sun and clock hypothesis – Sensitivity to magnetic fields |
| CONCLUSION from homing pigeons | SPATIAL LEARNING CAN BE BASED ON MULTIPLE SOURCES OF INFORMATION |
| Historically, the psychology of learning has shifted from a | Behaviorist perspective in first half of 20th century to cognitive perspective by late 20th century. |
| behaviorist spatial learning | stimulus-response terms (every decision point is a stimulus; reinforcement strengthens correct response) |
| animals and mazes | Rats adapt to mazes easily, as mazes seem to tap into the animals’ searching, burrowing, and tunneling behavior. – Simplest technique is a T-maze, with a start-box, runway, and one decision point leading to two possible directions. |
| How to learn to navigate through a maze: HULL | pure route learning [egocentric, stimulus-response associations] - Knowledge of a series of routes, directions, or paths through a spatial environment -- described as: paths, local, episodic, ground-based, concrete, detailed, sequence |
| How to learn to navigate through a maze: TOLMAN | Pure survey learning, acquired through latent learning - Acquisition of a cognitive map (an abstract representation of an environment) - described as: cognitive map, global, semantic, schematic, abstract, flexible |
| Place vs. Response Studies in Animals | Train animals to make a turn for food, then place them at a different starting point in T-maze – Different labs obtained different findings – Restle (1957): Rats, like humans and homing pigeons, are flexible in the knowledge they use. |
| based on Place vs. Response Studies in Animals | There is validity in both Behaviorist (route) and cognitive (survey) approaches. |
| Place vs. Response Studies in Human Infants | Cornell & Heth (1979): Infants (4-12 m) on mother’s lap with either changing stimuli and constant checkerboard on opposite sides. If mother changes position, younger infants kept turning in same direction but older infants responded to position change |
| Radial-arm maze | Eight arms radiating from a central platform - Performance can be based on both landmarks and cognitive map - Can be used to demonstrate episodic memory - Human children show above-chance performance by 20 months and almost perfect accuracy by 5 yrs |
| working memory radial arm maze | keeping track of which arms have been visited on this trial - lesion in hippocampus affects rats w/ this |
| reference memory radial arm maze | learning that one should always visit the same arms because food is being replenished there - lesion in striatum affects rats w/ this |
| Morris Water Maze | Rats placed in pool of clouded water and have to find platform - Rats learn to find the platform when starting at different places |
| Morris Water Maze strategies | a praxic strategy, a taxic strategy, A spatial strategy |
| a praxic strategy | remembering the movements needed to get to the platform |
| a taxic strategy | the rat uses visual cues to reach their destinations |
| A spatial strategy | using distal cues as points of reference to locate themselves |
| Schemas in Cognitive Maps | Humans may form cognitive maps from experience navigating or indirectly from others or text - Cognitive maps are not copies of the world but may be influenced by schemas (ways of abstracting, organizing, and storing knowledge) |
| examples of schemas in cognitive maps | - Tendency to draw intersections at right angles - Preferred perspective (e.g., forward=upward) |
| Cognitive maps are hierarchical, and our knowledge about higher-order units may create distortions | - We underestimate distances between locations in the same region, overestimate between locations in different regions - Region boundaries may cause misplacement of locations |
| Declarative Knowledge | Knowledge of facts |
| Episodic memory | autobiographical personal memory retaining temporal and contextual information - verbal learning tests - some measures of animal memory may measure 'episodic-like' memory |
| Semantic memory | store of general knowledge |
| Procedural Knowledge | Knowledge of how to do things; skills that may not be accessible to conscious verbal recall |
| Declarative stage | • Conscious processing and attention • Heavy reliance on working memory |
| Knowledge compilation | • Groups of procedures begin to be chunked |
| Procedural stage | • Entire skill is unitized • Refinement is possible, but not dependent on attention |
| Motor skills learning | Acquisition of precisely adjusted movements in which the amount, direction, and duration of responding corresponds to variations in the regulating stimuli |
| Two critical factors of motor skills acquisition | practice and feedback |
| Common Tasks of motor skills acquisition | Pursuit Rotor • Keep a stylus on a fixed point on a rotating disk Mirror Drawing • Follow the outline of an object where all visual guidance is through a mirror |
| Motor skill acquisition is affected by number of | learning experiences - monotonic, negatively accelerated learning curve - as with verbal materials, distributed practice is better than massed practice |
| Power Law | performance increases as a function of the logarithm of the number of repetitions (practice trials) - Performance=kR^x |
| Transfer | There has long been interest in effects of practicing a skill on untrained tasks. Transfer is often disappointingly small |
| Identical-elements theory | Transfer only occurs between skills that share elements |
| Self-guidance hypothesis | Key to motor skills is learning how to guide movements yourself and remembering how to do this without feedback - Summary knowledge of results - Acquisition was better with more feedback but retention two days later was better with less feedback |
| sumamry knowledfe of results outcome | Summary knowledge of results can lead to better retention of skills than immediate knowledge of results |
| The self-guidance hypothesis makes clear the importance of distinguishing between acquisition and retention. | Acquisition: Initial learning of skills or information Retention: Long-term retention of skills or information |
| Manipulations that make acquisition slower or more difficult often improves long-term retention | – Spacing of learning trials often slows down acquisition but improves retention – This parallels the effects of partial reinforcement in conditioning. |
| Types of Test | Explicit, implicit |
| Explicit | requires deliberate remembering of information |
| Implicit learning creation | begun by Reber’s artificial-grammar task but now most commonly using Serial Reaction Time Procedure - Focus is on gradual formation and strengthening of complex series of associations not reliant on conscious awareness |
| Implicit Memory | begun with the study of repetition priming (most commonly in word completion or perceptual identification) - Focus is on the extent to which performance on a task may be influenced by a particular episode that is not consciously recollected |
| Implicit memory became a topic of great interest because | some variables greatly influencing explicit memory have no effect on implicit memory and some subject populations greatly impaired on explicit tests show no deficit on implicit tests |
| What is Implicit Learning? | “complex” knowledge “acquired largely independent of conscious awareness” |
| The Hebb effect | Memory span is greater for a list that is repeated throughout the experiment - like multiple trials of series of numbers, a series of numbers gets repeated |
| Why should we think of the hebb effect as implicit learning? | – Most subjects do not notice repetition – Those who do not notice show same improvement as those who do – Amnesics (with Korsakoff’s syndrome) show same magnitude of Hebb effect |
| Retrograde amnesia | disruption in memory for information acquired before the damage or trauma |
| Anterograde amnesia | disruption in memory for information acquired after the damage or trauma |
| Korsakoff’s syndrome | anterograde amnesia associated with prolonged alcohol intake |
| Implicit Learning of Artificial Grammars | • Memory of sequences is better when they are consistent with rule than when they aren’t • Exposure to sequences leads to correct classification of new sequences • Performance stays above chance when grammar is applied to new letters |
| Why implicit for artificial grammars? | – Rule too complex to learn – No subject comes close to reporting whole rule – Most subjects say they don’t notice any regularities – Trying to find rule explicitly impairs transfer |
| Serial Reaction Time Procedure | • Light appears at one of 4 location; subjects press one of 4 keys • Pattern of lights seems random but actually repeats • RT in repeated blocks shows steady improvement while blocks of random lights show little improvement |
| why is serial reaction time procedure implicit? | Most say notice pattern late in experiment but improvement early. Divided attention task: SRTP listen and count tones. slows down performance and most don't notice pattern. same rate improvement. 6 with Korsakoff’s show same rate of improvement w/o notic |
| Implicit learning tasks | gradual change in behavior on repeated trials in complex tasks that require multiple associations |
| Are implicit tasks UNCONSCIOUS? | – Subjects aware of repeat pattern and learn conscious. hard to determine whether subjects are conscious of learning. • How score partial learning? ppl lying? Conditions seem to reduce conscious awareness - impaired conscious learning still show implici |
| Perruchet effect | Subjects’ conscious expectations may differ from physiological responses - Ss asked to rate expectations. Ratings for US increase if it had not occurred on recent trials; decrease if it had occurred often (gambler’s fallacy): opposite pattern to CR |
| Consciousness and Implicit Memory (Repetition Priming) | Processing of a stimulus is affected by a previous presentation of it. The study of the effects of a previous presentation of a stimulus (repetition priming) is sometimes called implicit memory |
| Implicit memory in judgment tasks | Briefly flash octagons, ask for judgment • Recognition: .47 • Preference: .61 • Brightness: .60 • Darkness: .60 |
| Priming in perceptual identification | Easier to identify rapidly-shown words if they had been shown earlier |
| Priming in word completion | Easier to complete word fragments (-V---V-, ---F-M-) if words had been seen earlier (EVASIVE, PERFUME) |
| Repetition Priming in Word Completion example | Subjects saw a list of 96 words. They then received two tests on Recognition and fragment completion. – Yes-no: 24 old words mixed with 24 new words – Fragment completion: Name the word that fills the fragment 24 ragments with old, 24 with new. |
| Basic statistics | If two events are independent, the probability of their co-occurring is equal to the product of their simple probabilities. |
| Looking for stochastic independence | Does knowing whether a particular subject responded positively on one item on a test tell you whether that same subject will respond positively to that same item on a different test? |
| when do you find stochastic independence | Stochastic Independence when Recognition is tested first No independence when Completion is tested first |
| Recognition (Explicit) | • Patterned after Craik & Tulving (1975) depth- processing experiments • Participants sign up for experiment on answering questions (physical, rhyme, meaning). At end of experiment, they receive unexpected test on words |
| results of jacoby and dallas recognition | Recognition as a result of question answered in first phase – Physical: .50 – Rhyme: . 63 – Meaning: .87 Repetition priming as a function of depth of processing in first phase – Physical: .80 – Rhyme: . 81 – Meaning: .81 |
| Greene (1986) Cued Recall | • Intentional Long: .37 • Intentional Short: .30 • Incidental Long: .27 • Incidental Short: .14 |
| Greene Repetition Priming in Word Completion | • Intentional Long: .28 • Intentional Short: .32 • Incidental Long: .27 • Incidental Short: .31 |
| Implicit Memory in Impaired Groups | - Implicit memory may be normal in some populations w/ impaired - Some populations may be impaired on all cognitive fn, including implicit memory -- Alzheimer’s disease may be ex though it may be possible to see priming on some implicit tasks |
| Consciousness is important for learning | - Explicit memory tasks (e.g., recall, recognition) require consciousness of remembering - Conscious strategies (e.g., depth of processing, testing, mnemonics) may greatly enhance learning |
| Under some circumstances, learning may happen in the absence of consciousness | – Implicit learning under some circumstances – Intact implicit learning and memory in anterograde amnesia |
| Nomothetic | effort to find general laws |
| Idiographic | effort to specify unique and subjective experiences |
| Forms of Memory Deficits | – Amnesia (Retrograde, Anterograde) – Psychogenic Amnesia – Fugue States |
| Mnemonists | Individuals with Exceptionally Good Memories |
| Luria’s S | Exceptional imagery-based memory |
| Rajan Mahadevan | Exceptional digit memory |
| Hyperthymesia | highly superior autobiographical memory - claiming to remember almost every event in their lives and to remember what they were doing on a particular date. - very rare, 60 cases only |
| Sex Differences in learning? | Slight (inconsistent) evidence of female superiority in verbal memory and male superiority on spatial tasks (especially mental rotation rate) - male rats tho better at radial-arm maze - these diffs dec if real |
| Personality Differences in learning | Effects of personality (especially anxiety and extraversion) have been speculated, but there is little evidence |
| Learning Styles impact on learning | t has been speculated that people have different preferences (e.g., visualizers vs. verbalizers or Kolb’s Concrete/Abstract and Active/Reflective), but there is essentially no supporting evidence (Rohrer & Pashler, 2012) |
| THE BOTTOM LINE of group differences in learning | HERE IS LITTLE REPLICATED EVIDENCE FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE GROUPS IN LEARNING |
| kolb's experiential learning theory cycle | look up a picture of this |
| Can Heredity Explain Individual Differences in Learning and Memory? | Standard way of demonstrating genetic contribution to trait in animals is through selective breeding - Bred rats on their ability to learn a maze. After 7 generations, descendants had diverged into distinct Maze Bright and Maze Dull rats |
| selective breeding | having a male and female of similar ability mate over several generations |
| Central concepts in mental testing | – Normal distribution – Correlation coefficient • Variance accounted for: squared correlation coefficient |
| Reliability | degree of consistency with which a test measures an attribute |
| Alternate Forms | measuring reliability by having subjects take two different forms of a test similar in content and level of difficulty |
| Test-retest | measuring reliability by administering test twice and correlating the two sets of scores |
| Split-Half | measuring reliability by correlating score on half of the questions with score on the other half |
| Validity | extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measures |
| Predictive validity | seeing whether the test correlates with another relevant criterion |
| VALIDATING IQ TESTS | • IQ Tests Predict Grades (Correlation around .50) • IQ Tests Predict Job Performance • IQ Tests Predict Success in Navigating Life |
| PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH TO INTELLIGENCE | An attempt to understand the nature of intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests |
| MOST IMPORTANT FINDING psychometric | EVERYTHING IS RELATED TO EVERYTHING ELSE. THERE ARE NO SEPARATE ABILITIES THAT ARE USEFUL IN PREDICTING SUCCESS. All reasonably reliable and valid measures of cognitive performance correlate with each other. |
| what is "All reasonably reliable and valid measures of cognitive performance correlate with each other." considered | perhaps the most replicated result in all of psychology |
| g: General Factor of intelligence | Mental attribute hypothesized to contribute to performance on all intellectual tasks. |
| most influential contemporary psychometric model | CHC model, three levels – A level of narrow (almost task-specific) factors – A level of broad abilities usually viewed as a distinction between ‘fluid’ intelligence and 'crystallized' int – A level of general ability (g) |
| Thomson (1916) took a reductionist approach to general intelligence | – argued that mental life involve large number of simple, elementary processes. - No one process would necessarily occur in all intellectual tasks, and no task would draw upon whole set of processes - all cog measures draw upon subset of these processes |
| Process-Overlap Theory | According to this account, there is no true general factor, but the positive intercorrelations arise because tasks draw from a large number of domain-general executive processes |
| Cognitive Correlates of Intelligence: letter-comparison task | shown two letters. press one key if same letter, diff key if diff letters. - respond same faster if two letters identical (A A) than if they are only name identical (A a) - difference correlates around .3 or .4 w/ overall score on an int test |
| Heritability | the proportion of variance in a trait that is due to heredity in a particular population |
| Adoption Studies | Is there a stronger correlation of child IQ with IQ of biological mother or adoptive mother |
| Twin Studies | to what extent are IQs of identical twins (100% genetic relatedness) more strongly related than IQs of fraternal twins (50% genetic relatedness) |
| Twin Studies results | – Correlation of IQs for fraternal twins: about .60 – Correlation of IQs for identical twins: about .86 |
| Adoption Studies results | – Correlation of IQs: Child, adoptive mother: .17 – Correlation of IQs: Child, biological mother: .31 (This correlation may go up slightly as child ages) |
| estimated heritability of IQ | Between .50-.60 |
| Correlation for identical twins on IQ when reared apart | around .75 |
| Emergenesis | Genetic traits that do not run in families - Identical twins reared apart may show similarities not expected from typical siblings --- little odd similarities btwn twins not shown in other relationships |
| Flynn effect | worldwide increase in IQ scores over recent decades, at a rate of 3 points per decade |
| Overall IQ related to memory performance | Importance of processing speed, knowledge, insight |
| Can you find a genetic contribution purely on memory? | Identical twin pairs were more related than fraternal twin pairs on measures of associative memory (e.g.,name-face) but not on working memory (e.g., digit span) - Episodic + semantic memory reflect some genetic contributions but not related to each other |
| THE BOTTOM LINE about learning and memory | Not many studies, but evidence suggests - Different learning and memory tasks may be separate abilities - At least some memory abilities may reflect a unique genetic trait |
| Top 10 Replicated Findings from Behavior Genetics 1-3 | 1. All psychological traits show significant and substantial genetic influence 2. No traits are 100% heritable 3. Heritability is caused by many genes of small effect |
| Top 10 Replicated Findings from Behavior Genetics 4-6 | 4. Phenotypic correlations between psychological traits show significant and substantial genetic mediation 5. The heritability of intelligence increases throughout development 6. Age-to-age stability is mainly due to genetics |
| Top 10 Replicated Findings from Behavior Genetics 7-8 | 7. Most measures of the “environment” show significant genetic influence 8. Most associations between environmental measures and psychological traits are significantly mediated genetically |
| Top 10 Replicated Findings from Behavior Genetics 9-10 | 9. Most environmental effects are not shared by children growing up in the same family 10. Abnormal is normal |
| It is impossible to find (BLANK) that have more than a negligible relationship with complex traits like intelligence or learning. | single genes |
| Genome-Wide Association Studies | Particular sequences of genes are given a weight based on their relationship to a particular phenotype (trait) |
| polygenic score | represents the genetic contribution to a particular trait. - By adding up the weights for all of the genetic sequences |
| Conditioned taste aversions | After birth, rat pups avoid apple juice paired with illness in utero |
| Prenatal learning | - Conditioned taste aversions - Reports of habituation and classical conditioning in humans - Learning of mother’s voice before birth: greater response to it |
| Why does Memory Improve? | • The role of knowledge (e.g., Chi, 1978) • The role of knowledge about memory (metamemory) – Need for attention, rehearsal, elaboration – Memory monitoring |
| Child Advantages in Learning and Memory: Critical (Sensitive) Periods | Some types of learning are most efficient at a particular (young) period of life – Imprinting in some birds (Lorenz, 1935) – Language acquisition in humans |
| Animal conditioning research suggests that aging | can negatively impact learning - Eyeblink classical conditioning has been studied intensively. - Age differences are found but vary as a function of procedure |
| Memory and the Elderly | - In humans and other species, conditioning declines in the elderly - Memory span declines about half a digit from young to old adults - Almost all measures of fluid intelligence + episodic memory on explicit tests show decline (harder test, more dec) |
| What doesn’t decline with memory over time | – Implicit memory (repetition priming) – Crystallized intelligence (knowledge, including semantic memory) |
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atallarida