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Pathology Module 6
Urinary, Endocrine, and Reproductive systems.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What pair of organs removes waste products and drugs from the body, balances the body's fluids, release hormones to regulate blood pressure, and control the production of red blood cells. | Kidneys |
| What tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder? | Ureters |
| What triangle shaped hollow organ, located in the lower abdomen, has walls that relax and expand to store urine? | Bladder |
| What tubes allow urine to pass outside the body by squeezing urine out of the bladder? | Urethra |
| What urinary part is shorter in women, causing them to have more bladder infections? | Urethra |
| What is the physical, psychological process of emptying the urinary bladder? | Micturition |
| What is the toxic condition resulting from severe kidney failure, where waste products (like urea and creatinine) build up in the blood. It is often fatal if untreated, requiring dialysis or transplant? | Uremia |
| Liquid waste produced by the kidneys, filtered from the blood, and stored in the bladder. | Urine |
| The involuntary loss of bladder control, resulting in leakage. | Incontinence |
| The need to wake up at night on a regular basis to urinate. | Nocturia |
| Involuntary urination, often referred to as bed-wetting, typically used in the context of children. | Enuresis |
| : The presence of red blood cells in the urine, either visible to the eye (gross) or only under a microscope. (It is NEVER completely normal). | Hematuria |
| Decreased urine output, typically defined as less than 500 mL per 24 hours in adults. | Oliguria |
| The absence of urine output, usually defined as less than 50 mL or 100 mL in 24 hours, generally indicating severe kidney failure. | Anuria |
| Painful or difficult urination. | Dysuria |
| Inflammation of the bladder, most commonly caused by a urinary tract infection (UTI). | Cystitis |
| A type of UTI that has traveled to the kidneys, often causing fever and flank pain. | Pyelonephritis |
| Inflammation of the urethra, the tube through which urine leaves the body. | Urethritis |
| Inflammation of the glomeruli, the tiny filters in the kidneys, which can lead to blood and protein in the urine. | Glomerulonephritis |
| Solid, hard crystals that form from minerals in the urine within the kidneys or urinary tract. | Renal Calculi |
| A genetic disorder causing numerous fluid-filled cysts to grow in the kidneys, which can lead to kidney failure. | Polycystic Kidney Disease |
| What is the non-invasive medical procedure used to break up kidney stones, bladder stones, or ureteral stones into small particles that can be passed easily in urine. | Lithotripsy |
| How much blood volume is filtered at any given time in the kidneys? | 1/2 cup to 1 cup (about 125 mL) of blood per minute. |
| What happens if someone has kidney failure/uremia and cannot get a transplant? | Long-term dialysis |
| What do Endocrine glands produce | Hormones |
| What do hormones do? | regulate essential bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood |
| Where is the pituitary gland and why is it called the master gland? | Regulates vital bodily functions by releasing hormones that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress responses. It acts under the hypothalamus to direct other glands |
| Where is the pituitary gland located? | at the base of the brain, located directly behind the bridge of the nose |
| Where is the pineal gland located? | Situated deep in the center of the brain, beneath the back part of the corpus callosum. |
| Where is the thyroid gland located? | Located in the front of the neck, below the larynx (voice box) or Adam's apple, wrapping around the trachea. |
| Where is the parathyroid gland located? | Typically four tiny glands located on the back of the thyroid gland. |
| Where are the Adrenal Glands located? | Positioned on top of each kidney. |
| Where is the pancreas? | Located across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach. |
| Where are the Gonads (Ovaries + Testes) | |
| What gland has a lot to do with metabolism? | Thyroid gland |
| What gland produces growth hormones and is the master gland? (controls other glands) | Pituitary gland |
| a rare, slow-progressing disorder caused by excess growth hormone (GH)—usually from a non cancerous pituitary tumor—after growth plates close, causing enlarged hands, feet, and facial features | Acromegaly |
| only occurs in children and adolescents before the growth plates in long bones fuse at the end of puberty. | Gigantism |
| What conditions are characterized by disrupting the quality/amount of sleep, that is primarily affected by the pineal gland (secretes melatonin). | Sleep disorder |
| What autoimmune disorder is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. (Creation of too much thyroid hormone) The most affected gland is the thyroid gland. | Graves Disease |
| An enlarged thyroid gland that may be visible as a swelling in the neck, it is not a disease but is usually a symptom of an underlying condition like graves disease. | Goiter |
| What is the condition where the thyroid gland is under active and does not produce enough thyroid hormones, leading to a slow metabolism. | Hypothyroidism |
| What is the rare chronic disorder where the body does not produce enough cortisol or aldosterone, also known as Adrenal insufficiency. (Adrenal glands) | Addison's Disease |
| What condition is caused by an overproduction of cortisol | Cushing Syndrome |
| In this condition the parathyroid glands fail to properly regulate calcium balance resulting in hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia. | Calcium Level Problems |
| What is the normal fasting (before breakfast) blood sugar? | 70-99 mg/dL |
| What is the effect of insulin? | Insulin reduces blood sugar levels. It acts as a "key" that allows glucose to enter cells to be used for energy. |
| Where is insulin Produced? | Beta cells in the pancreas |
| What is the effect of glucagon? | Increases blood sugar levels, acting as a counter-regulatory hormone to insulin. |
| Where is glucagon produced? | Produced by alpha cells in the pancreas |
| What type of diabetes is an autoimmune reaction causes the body to stop producing insulin, typically diagnosed in children or young adults, requiring daily insulin for survival. | Type 1 diabetes |
| In what type of diabetes does the body fails to use insulin properly (insulin resistance) or produce insufficient amounts. It is highly associated with lifestyle factors and often develops over many years. | Type 2 Diabetes |
| What type of diabetes occurs only during pregnancy when placental hormones block insulin action. While blood sugar usually returns to normal after birth, it increases the mother's risk of developing Type 2 | Gestational Diabetes |
| High blood glucose, elevated blood sugar and glycemic excursion? Extreme thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, nausea, blurred vision, and dry skin. | Hyperglycemia |
| Low blood glucose, insulin reaction, going low. Symptoms: Sudden shakiness, sweating, rapid heartbeat, confusion, irritability ("hangry"), and dizziness. | Hypoglycemia |
| A diabetic coma is a life-threatening, deep, and prolonged state of unconsciousness where a person is alive but cannot wake up or respond to sound or light. It is a medical emergency that can be fatal if not treated immediately | Diabetic Coma |
| a critical, acute condition that occurs when blood sugar drops dangerously low (usually below 40-70 mg/dL), often due to too much insulin or not eating enough | Insulin Shock |
| A complication that affects the eyes, caused by damage to the small blood vessels in the retina (the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye) | Diabetic Retinopathy |
| nerve damage caused by high blood sugar levels over time. It can affect up to half of all people with diabetes. | Nerupathy |
| Serious kidney disease caused by diabetes, affecting the ability of the kidneys to filter waste from the blood. | Nephropathy |
| What test measures the percentage of hemoglobin coated with sugar, providing an average blood sugar level over the past two to three months? It is used to diagnose prediabetes/diabetes and monitor long-term management. | Hemoglobin A1C |
| What test Measures the precise amount of glucose in the blood at the exact time of the test. It detects hyperglycemia (high sugar) or hypoglycemia (low sugar) to diagnose diabetes, prediabetes, or gestational diabetes. | Blood Glucose |
| Measures how well the body processes glucose by taking blood samples before and several times after drinking a high-glucose liquid. It is primarily used to diagnose gestational diabetes and prediabetes. | Glucose Tolerance Test |
| Detects the presence of sugar in the urine, which usually indicates that blood sugar levels are high enough for the kidneys to spill excess glucose into the urine. | Urine Test for Glucose: |
| Detects ketones (acids formed when the body breaks down fat for energy instead of glucose). This is used to monitor for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a dangerous acute complication | Urine Test for Ketones: |
| Does a woman keep making eggs throughout life? | no |
| Primarily a female sex hormone (produced in ovaries) that promotes the growth and development of female sexual characteristics, regulates the menstrual cycle, and affects brain, bone, and vascular health. | Estrogen |
| Known as the "pregnancy hormone," it prepares the endometrium (lining of the womb) for implantation of a fertilized egg and supports the early stages of pregnancy. | Progesterone |
| Produced by the pituitary gland, it stimulates the ovaries to mature egg cells in women and supports sperm production in men. | Follicle Stimulating Gland |
| Also from the pituitary, it triggers ovulation (the release of a mature egg) and triggers the ovaries to produce estrogen. In men, it prompts testes to produce testosterone. | Luteinizing Hormone |
| Produced by the placenta during pregnancy, this hormone signals the body to continue producing progesterone, supporting the developing embryo. | Human Chorionic Gonadotropin |
| The primary male sex hormone produced in the testes, crucial for developing reproductive tissues, sperm production, and secondary sexual characteristics like muscle mass and facial hair. | Testosterone |
| Amenorrhea that is characterized by no menarche by age 15 | Primary amenorrhea |
| Amenorrhea that is characterized by no menstruation for more than 3 months if previously regular, or 6 if previously irregular. | Secondary Amenorrhea |
| Transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts during ejaculation | Vas Deferens |
| Secretes a significant amount of fluid (roughly 70% of semen volume) that is rich in fructose to nourish sperm. | Seminal vesicles |
| Produces a clear, slippery mucus-like fluid (pre-ejaculate) that lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any residual acidic urine. | Bulbourethral glands |
| Secretes an alkaline, milky fluid containing enzymes, citric acid, and zinc that aids in sperm viability and keeps the semen fluid. | Prostate gland |
| How does the prostate cause problems to older men if it is enlarged (benign prostatic hypertrophy)? | |
| Surgical removal of vas deferens | Vasectomy |
| A collection of fluid in the tunica vaginalis (sac surrounding the testicle), leading to painless scrotal swelling or enlargement, commonly seen in infants but also occurring in adults. | Hydrocele |
| A medical emergency where the testicle twists on the spermatic cord, blocking blood flow and causing sudden, severe pain, swelling, and potential necrosis if not treated within 6 hours. | Testicular Torsion |
| A persistent, often painful erection lasting more than four hours, unrelated to sexual stimulation. It is considered a medical emergency. | Priapism |
| A common congenital defect characterized by the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum, often requiring intervention to prevent infertility. | Cryptorchidism |
| Inflammation of one or both testicles, typically caused by viral (e.g., mumps) or bacterial infections. | Orchitis |
| Inflammation of the prostate gland, which often causes urinary pain, frequency, and pelvic pain. | Prostatitis |
| Inflammation of the epididymis, the tube at the back of the testicle that stores sperm, often caused by infection (STIs in younger men, UTI in older men), leading to pain and swelling. | Epididymitis |
| A non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland common in older men, which causes urinary issues like frequency, hesitancy, and weak stream. | Benign prostatic hypertrophy |
| The consistent inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual intercourse | Erectile dysfunction |
| Bacteria caused infection that occurs in 3 stages. 1. primary with chancres, 2. rash, fever, swollen glands, and 3. internal organ damage. | syphilis |
| Viral infection whose symptoms include: Painful, fluid-filled blisters or open sores (ulcers) on or around the genitals or anus, often accompanied by tingling or flu-like symptoms. | genital herpes |
| Viral infection whose symptoms include: Frequently has no symptoms. Some strains cause genital warts (small bumps), while others can lead to cancers of the cervix, throat, or penis | HPV |
| Bacteria caused infection that is often asymptomatic. When symptoms are present they include painful urination, abnormal vaginal or penile discharge, and pelvic pain. | Chlamydia |
| Bacteria caused infection similar to chlamydia whose symptoms include: yellow/green discharge, burning during urination, and sometimes swollen testicles or rectal pain | gonorrhea |
| Parasitic infection whose symptoms include: Itching, burning, or redness in the genital area. Women may experience a foul-smelling, frothy discharge that is clear, white, yellowish, or greenish. | Trichomoniasis |
| What is a full term pregnancy? | 39 - 40 weeks |
| What is premature (weeks) | 37 weeks and before |
| What is the beginning date of a pregnancy? | The first day of your last menstrual period. |
| Why do women have a higher chance of infertility and chromosomal abnormalities? | Because women are born with all their eggs, which age over time. Impacting the quantity and quality of the eggs. |
| Menarche | First Period |
| What is the last period in older women? | Menopause |
| What is the approximate length of a cycle? | 28 days |
| What happens on approximately day 14 of a cycle? | Ovulation |
| What happens on day one of cycle? | menstruation Begins |
| How long does the egg live if it is not fertilized? | 12-24 hours |
| Painful menstrual cramps. Primary dysmenorrhea is common cramping without underlying disease, while secondary dysmenorrhea is pain caused by a disorder like endometriosis or PID | Dysmenorrhea |
| The medical term for excessively heavy or prolonged menstrual bleeding, often requiring frequent sanitary pad changes or lasting longer than 7 days. | Menorrhagia |
| A group of physical and emotional symptoms—including mood swings, tender breasts, and fatigue—that occur 1–2 weeks before menstruation. | Premenstrual syndrome |
| A chronic condition where tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) grows outside the uterus. This causes severe, chronic pain (pelvic, lower back, or during sex) and often impacts fertility. | Endometriosis |
| An infection of the female reproductive organs (uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries) often caused by sexually transmitted bacteria like chlamydia or gonorrhea. It causes pelvic pain, fever, and abnormal discharge, which can lead to infertility. | pelvic inflammatory disease |
| How is the temperature of sperm related to infertility? | |
| a type of high blood sugar (diabetes) that develops during pregnancy, typically around the 24th to 28th week, in people who did not have diabetes before | Gestational Diabetes |
| Can a tubal pregnancy result in a living baby? | No |
| What are most miscarriages caused by? | Chromosomal Abnormalities |
| What population is more at risk for stillbirths? | Non-Hispanic black women |
| a severe, potentially life-threatening pregnancy complication characterized by persistent, extreme nausea and vomiting | Hyperemesis gravidarum |
| life-threatening blood pressure disorder occurring after 20 weeks of pregnancy (or postpartum), characterized by high blood pressure, signs of kidney damage, severe headaches, vision changes, and severe swelling. Left untreated, it can lead to seizures | preeclampsia |
| the abnormal positioning of the placenta over the cervix (previa = pre-view), typically causing painless, bright red third-trimester bleeding. | Placenta previa |
| the premature separation of a normally implanted placenta from the uterine wall, typically causing painful, dark red bleeding, a rigid/tender uterus, and fetal distress | Placental abruption |
| structural or functional abnormalities present at birth, affecting about one in 33 babies in the U.S.. Common types include heart defects, neural tube defects , and chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome. | Congenital defect |
| a neural tube defect where the fetal spinal column fails to close completely during the first month of pregnancy, causing spinal cord damage | Spina bifida |
| During which stage is the baby delivered? | Second Stage of labor (pushing and birth) |
| Occurs when the baby is being born in a position other than it being head first | Breech |
| Are breech babies delivered vaginally if it is the firsts baby? | Not typically |
| the baby's legs are folded flat up against his head and his bottom is closest to the birth canal. | Frank Breech |
| One or both feet are going out of the birth canal first instead of the head | Footling Breech |
| If there are no complications, what is safer: C-section or Vagianl birth? | Vaginal Birth |
| What is an APGAR test? | Test given 1-5 minutes after birth to determine newborns immediate health status. Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration |
| What is a good score on an APGAR test? | 7-10 |
Created by:
aliza.ahouse2