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Final exam AP 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Kidney | regulate water volume & solute concentration; regulate acid-base balance; excrete metabolic waste, toxins, drugs; renin (regulate bp) & erythropoietin; activate Vit D |
| Renal Papillae | bundles of collecting ducts that transport urine made by nephrons to kidney's calyces for excretion |
| Ureters | transport urine kidney to urinary bladder; transitional epithelium |
| Urinary bladder | temporary storage reservoir for urine |
| Urethra | transport urine out of body |
| Urine Flow | glomerulus -> pct -> nephron loop -> dct -> collecting duct -> renal pyramid -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter |
| Renal Corpuscle | glomerulus & Bowman's capsule |
| Renal Corpuscle | Parietal (outer): simple squamous ep.; Visceral (inner): made of podocytes |
| Renal Corpuscle | site of filtration; include filtration membrane |
| Podocytes | Finger-like extensions (pedicles) that cover glomerular capillaries |
| Filtration membrane | have fenestrations (windows), capillary membrane, pedicles, & basement membrane |
| Filtration membrane | all of the proteins (amino acids) will be blocked & only water-carrying solutes pass by |
| Oliguria | severe dehydration |
| Oliguria | response: 99% of water is reabsorbed |
| Polyuria | excessive urine production due to DM |
| Hematuria | presence of RBC |
| Pyuria | presence of WBC |
| Urine | 95% water & 5 solutes |
| PH of water | 6; can change due to diet & pH of the body |
| Normal urine | 1-2 liters per day |
| Solutes in urine | nitrogenous waste (urea, uric acid) creatinine which is toxic for the body; ex: Na+, K+ Po43- & SO42-, Ca++, Mg++ |
| Proximal Convoluted Tube | major reabsorption with active transport; possess a high # of mitochondria; influence by its cells |
| Descending Limb | water reabsorption only |
| Ascending limb | reabsorbing ions (Na+, K+, Cl-) only |
| Distal Convoluted Tube | selectively reabsorb & secret water & ions; influenced by hormones |
| Collecting duct | reabsorb water by hormone; lead to minor calyx |
| Collecting duct | has water channels; + when more Adh is secreted & display aquaporins |
| Aquaporins | channel protein for urine |
| Dehydration | concentrated urine |
| Dehydration | osmolality of extracellular (plasma) fluid + (found out by hypothalamus) -> ADH is released (target: DCT & collecting duct) -> aquaporins in collecting ducts +; Water reabsorption +; small concentrate urine |
| Overhydration | diluted urine |
| Overhydration | osmolality of extracellular fluid is decreased (hypothalamus notice there's more H2O than Na+) -> ADH release is slow (Water will always follow Na+) -> less # of aquaporins in collecting ducts -> larger volume of urine |
| Absorption | taking out of urine |
| Secretion | putting in urine |
| PCT & Nephron loop | mainly regulated by osmolarity of water |
| DCT & Collecting duct | mainly regulated by hormones |
| Urinary bladder & Ureters | mucosa (transitional ep), muscular layer (3 layers of S.M.), & fibrous adventitia |
| Urine Formation | Assembly line; Net movement of the fluid |
| Urine Formation | filtration @ Glomerulus, reabsorption, & secretion @ PCT, nephron loop, & DCT |
| Type of filtration rate | glomerular hydrostatic pressure, blood colloid osmotic pressure, & capsular hydrostatic pressure |
| Glomerular hydrostatic pressure | going to urine; Afferent > efferent (force will push H2O out of capillaries) |
| Glomerular hydrostatic pressure | bp w/in the glomerular capillaries |
| Blood colloid osmotic pressure | blood has higher solute concentration comparing to the filtrate in Bowman's capsule |
| Blood colloid osmotic pressure | The GHP will produce high to low con. of solute between the glomerulus & bowman's capsule; going against urine |
| Capsular hydrostatic pressure | Created by fluid w/in the capsule due to space limit |
| Capsular hydrostatic pressure | the result of water coming in between of glomerulus & bowman's capsule; going against urine |
| Net of All Pressure | continues as long as GHP is higher than the combination of BCOP & CHP; then there will be + net outward pressure |
| Net of All Pressure | affect Glomerular Filtration Rate; passive process |
| Glomerular Filtration Rate | measures blood quality filtration; passive process |
| Nephron | PCT, nephron loop, dct, & collecting duct |
| Nephron | reabsorb most Ca++, Na++, glucose, & amino acid to maintain homeostatic concentrations |
| Waste product | made from urea, K+, ammonia (NH3), creatinine, & other drugs |
| Urine output | influence by osmolality & hormones |
| Urea | largest solute component in urine |
| Hydration | change the color of urine |
| Urochrome | responsible for urine's yellow |
| Muscular layer | the SM create peristaltic contractions to move urine into the bladder w/o aid of gravity |
| Adventitia | loose layer of collagen & fat |
| Vein pathway of urine | include like arteries but doesn't have a segmental vein |
| Blood filtration | renal artery -> segmented artery -> interlobar artery -> arcuate artery -> cortical radiate artery -> afferent arteriole -> glomerulus -> efferent -> either peritubular capillaries or vasa rectal -> cortical vein... |
| Nephron | located inside cortex |
| Cortical nephrons | 85%; normal urine; regular nephron loop; peritubular capillaries (DTC & PCT) |
| Juxtamedullary nephrons | 15% concentrated urine (in case of dehydration); longer nephron loop; vasa recta (blood capillaries around the nephron loop of juxtamedullary nephrons) |
| Medulla | urine production |
| (Nephron) urine formation | filtration; secretion & absorption |
| Glomerulus | sized-based blood capillaries |
| Bowman's capsule | squamous cells that collect filtrate |
| Efferent arteriole | smaller diameter: less blood to come in |
| Afferent arteriole | bigger diameter: more blood to come in |
| Podocytes | abundant in blood capillaries |
| Podocytes | have extensions to intertwine w/ others & rest on blood capillaries |
| Urinary system | regulate blood glucose levels & produce hormones; maintains blood osmolarity |
| Descending limb | its thin segment helps to pack a greater number of nephron loops into a smaller space |
| ADH | responsible for water reabsorption |
| Erythropioetin | a hormone that stimulate bone marrow to make RBCs |
| Kidney | convert vit D into active form (calcitriol) needed to maintain healthy bones |
| Kidney | remove waste products from the blood |
| Essential for the urine formation | maintaining high rate of blood flow & normal bp in the kidneys |
| Hilum | where vessels, nerves, & the ureter connect w/ the kidney |
| Nephrons | make up each kidney's interior; composed of corpuscle & tubule |
| Kidney homeostatic balance | adjust their output to equal the intake of the body |
| accumulation of nitrogenous waste products | due to result of protein breakdown & quickly reach toxic levels if not excreted |
| Kidney | secrete erythropoietin (EPO) as a response due to a deficiency of O2 in the body, to stimulate more rbc production |
| Hemorrhage (severe bleeding) | may cause a drop in the bp followed by a kidney failure |
| reabsorption | movement of substances out of the renal tubules into the blood capillaries located around the tubules (peritubular capillaries) |
| Glycosuria | glucose in the urine; sign of DM |
| Secretion | substances move into urine in the distal & collecting ducts from blood in the capillaries around these tubules; reabsorption in reverse |
| reabsorption | move substances out of the urine into the blood |
| secretion | move substances out of the blood into the urine |
| ADH | decrease the amount of water by making collecting ducts permeable to water |
| no ADH | tubules are impermeable to water; little to no water is reabsorbed from them |
| Aldosterone | secreted by the adrenal cortex |
| Aldosterone | control the kidney tubules' reabsorption of sodium at a faster rate |
| Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system (RAAS) | produce constriction of blood vessels which raises blood pressure |
| Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system (RAAS) | triggers aldosterone release which promotes water retention; thus increase total blood volume & raising bp |
| Rugae | empty form of the bladder; very wrinkled & lies in folds |
| Urethra | lowest part of the urinary tract |
| Distal convoluted tubule | Primary function: reabsorption of water & ions |
| Nephron loop | most significant for water reabsorption leading to urine concentration |
| Blood hydrostatic pressure | push fluid out of the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule during glomerular filitration |
| PCT | primary site of reabsorption of glucose and amino acids in the nephron |
| PCT | reabsorb water & solutes (glucose, amino acids, and Na++) |
| PCT | secret nitrogenous wastes & some drugs |
| Nephron loop | reabsorb Na+ & Cl |
| DCT | reabsorb water, Na+, & Cl |
| DCT | secrete ammonia, K+, H2), & some drugs |
| Collecting duct | reabsorb water |
| Water | 75% in infant body |
| Water | 55-60% in adult body |
| Extracellular Fluid | plasma, interstitial fluid, CSF, eyes, & joints |
| Electrolytes outside cells | Na+, Cl-, & HCO3- |
| Electrolytes in cells | K-, HPO4--, Ca++, Mg++, & Protein |
| Hyponatremia | less Na+ than normal; too much water in body |
| Hypernatremia | more Na+ than normal; too much water is secreted |
| Hypokalemia | less K+ than normal which leads to lead MP (need more to be activated_ |
| Hyperkalemia | more K+ than normal; extremely responsible (ex: uncontrolled muscle convolutions); heart is extremely sensitive |
| Na+ | most important ion outside of cell |
| Electrolytes | vital in neurons & muscle fibers for resting MP |
| Change of balance of Na+ & K+ | change Resting MP |
| More Na+ outside of body | too positive; risk: involuntary contractions & treatments to change mp isn't simple |
| Inside cell water composition | 55% |
| Extracellular fluid in body | 45% |
| Water input | metabolism, food, & drinks |
| Water output | food, sweat, invisible water loss, & urine |
| Dual-action | HCO3- absorption in kidneys mean H+ release |
| Osmolality | hypothalamus wanna induct thirst |
| High osmolality | more concentration of solutes |
| Edema | accumulation of excess water in interstitial fluid |
| Edema | treatments: electrolytes (Na+ will make water follow); compression socks |
| Ca++ balance | calcitonin & pth |
| PTH | increase as response of decrease Ca++ |
| PTH | @ DCT, reabsorb Ca+; promote osteoclast & inhibit osteoblast; increase Vit D synthesis, & help Ca++ absorption from intestine |
| Calcitonin | increase as a response of increase Ca++ |
| Calcitonin | @ thyroid gland; increase osteoblast & inhibit osteoclast, absorb Ca++ from intestine & kidney |
| heart | very sensitive to K+; ach is always releasing; most of the time heart needs to be relax |
| Osmolality | how the brain measure hydration levels |
| Osmolality | the ratio of solutes in a solution to a volume of solvent in a solution |
| Hydration status | influence kidneys |
| ADH | hold water in kidneys |
| Too acidic (ph < 7) | release H |
| too basic (ph > 7) | takes H+ |
| Homeostatic ph | 7.35-7.45 |
| Respiratory acidosis | due to pneumonia, emphysema, & CHF |
| Respiratory acidosis | anything that interferes w/ respiration |
| Respiratory alkalosis | due to extreme emotional upset (fear); fever infection; hypoxia; too high of catecholamines (Epinephrine & Norepinephrine) |
| Respiratory alkalosis | too much CO2 is exhaled |
| LBP response | Kidney release renin which combines with angiotensin (from liver) to make angiotensin I; which converts to active form angiotensin II |
| Angiotensin II | influence ADH release in pituitary to block urine formation @ DCT & collecting duct; which display aquaporin so water can be reabsorb |
| Angiotensin II | influence Aldosterone release in the adrenal gland to target kidney & dct to release K+ & reabsorb Na+ by kidneys to normalize levels |
| Angiotensin II | vasoconstrict to reduce lumen & increase BP |
| Buffers | weak acids that halfly release and keep H+ |
| Lungs control | CO2+ H2O |
| Kidney control | H+ + HCO3- |
| H2CO3 | weak acid |
| Buffer system | H+ + HCO3- to H2CO3 (turn basic) |
| reabsorb HCO3- of kidneys (urine to blood) | must release H+ from blood to urine |
| CO2 +H2O - H2CO3 - H+ + HCO3- | use to fix pH |
| Hypoventilation | w/ holding CO2 (increase Co2) leading to increase H+ leading to lower ph & respiratory acidosis |
| Hypoventilation | increase of CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> H+ HCO3- (high H+) |
| Hyperventilation | release CO2 (decrease CO2) leading decrease H+ leading to higher pH to respiratory alkolosis |
| Hyperventilation | H+ + HCO3- -> H2CO3 -> CO2 + H2O (low H+) |
| Metabolic related | if lung breathing doesn't match the pH level |
| Metabolic related | changes in PH not related to lungs |
| Metabolic acidosis | hyperventilation yet low PH (faster breathing) |
| Metabolic acidosis | increase of H+; when blood is too acidic (ph<7.35) or excessive ketones |
| Metabolic alkalosis | decrease of H+; when blood is too alkaline (ph>7.35) due to much bicarbonate |
| Metabolic alkalosis | hypoventilation yet high pH |
| Dehydration | water imbalance (output>input) |
| Rice in plasma osmolality | triggers thirst |
| Na+ regulation | linked to BP |
| K+ balance regulation | involves aldosterone-induced secretion of K+ |
| PTH | Calcium reabsorption |
| Bicarbonate buffer system | most important blood buffer system |
| Hypoventilation | leads to respiratory acidosis |
| H+ blood regulation | renal mechanisms, respiratory changes, & chemical buffers |
| Hypokalemia | result in muscle weakness |
| Aldosterone | stimulate Na+ reabsorption (back to blood) |
| PTH | stimulate bone resorption (break down bone) & Ca+ release into the bloodstream |
| Metabolic alkalosis | in response, renal tubules decreased secretion of H+ |
| decreased bicarbonate levels | primary disturbance in the acid-base balance in metabolic acidosis |
| Primary sex organs | Testes & ovaries |
| Acc. Organs of reproductive system | Ducts, glands, & external genitalia |
| Scrotum | Contain testes; kept 2-4c below body temp |
| Testes | Surrounded by dense CT (tunica) |
| Testes | Separates lobules |
| Seminiferous tubules | Site of sperm lobules |
| Rate testis | Network of tubules (testosterone); for sperm production and test will be reabsorbed |
| Prostate cancer | 2nd most common; not commonly dangerously; aggressive form: metastasis to lung and brain |
| Benign prostatic hyperplasia | Prostate enlargement; urethra constriction, frequent and intense urge to urinate, weak stream, and feel inadequate on emptying |
| Female reproductive system | Produce gametes & hormones; support developing fetus & delivering it to the outside world; located primarily in pelvic cavity |
| Ovary | Egg production; estrogen & progesterone |
| Egg pathway | Ovary -> uterine tube -> uterus -> cervix -> vagina |
| Uterine tube | Catch the egg once released; site of fertilization |
| Uterus | Site for fetal development |
| Uterus layers | Perimetreium, myometrium, and endometrium |
| Perimetrium | Connective tissue for protection and stabilization |
| Myometrium | Thickest layer of sm |
| Endometrium | Basal and functional layer |
| Cefvix | Consists mucus |
| Vagina | Muscular tube for Birth canal |
| Cervical cancer | Common ages (30-50); and risk: frequent cervixal inflammation, STI (HPV); multiple pregnancies; Pap smear to detect |
| Sperm pathway | Testis -> epidiymis -> vas deferens -> ampulla -> seminal vesicles -> ejaculatory dut -> prostatic urethra -> spongy urethra -> external urethral opening |
| Testis | Produce sperm and hormones |
| Epididymis | Sperm maturation |
| Vas deferens | Transport egg |
| Ampulla | Sperm storage b4 ejaculation |
| Bulbourethreal gland | Slippery fluid that lubricate the tip of penis for sexual stimulation; neutralize ph; comes b4 ejaculation |
| Spermatogenesis | Spermatogonium -mitosis-> 2 2nd (primary spermatocytes | 23 pairs of chromosomes/46 chromosomes/ half of the genetic material -meiosis-> 2 1st (secondary spermatocytes) | only 23 chromosomes |
| Seminal vesicles | Produce fructose-rich (and prostaglandins & fibrinogen) semen (60%); only semen go here not sperm |
| Prostate gland | Produce 30% of semen; alkaline fluid to adjust ph of male/female ducts and contain enzymes to activate sperm and deagguluate the sperm |
| Deagguluate | Spread them as individuals to refrain from attached to one another |
| Penis | Consist 2 chambers of corpus cavernous and 1 chamber of corpus spongiousum |
| Corpus cavernosum | Bulk part |
| Corpus spongiousum | Sorrounds spongy urethra |
| Erectile tissue | Can enlarge during sexual stimulation via blood vessels |
| Testosterone influence | Pubic, axillary, & facial hair; voice deepening; skin - thickens and oils; bone grows (+ in skeletal muscle size and mass); booze bmr; sex drive (libido) |
| Erection | Opening of arterial blood flow; vein close (blood won’t return); parasympathetic response; Nitric oxide (NO) is released from nerve endings to relax the S.M. and allow more blood to come & constrict vein |
| Ejaculation | sympathetic spinal reflex; prevent urine flow, ampulla contract & empty |
| LH | target release of interstitial cells |
| FSH | release sterol cells (in seminiferous tubules) |
| FSH | trigger inhibition release: go back to the pituitary gland to inhibit FSH + LH to control testosterone production |
| Follicles | release eggs; has a fixed amount; hormone |
| Breasts | milk feeding; + feedback |
| Areola | protection for breast against sucking |
| Breast cancer | 70% of women; hereditary; can turn milk green |
| Ovarian cycle | Follicular (1-14), Ovulation, Luteal (14-28; Corpus luteum) |
| Pituitary hormone in ovarian cycle | FSH will target follicular development & LH will target ovulation |
| Ovarian hormone in ovarian cycle | Estrogen will grow breast (fat); widen & lighten pelvis; high during proliferative; builds lining; drop after proliferative |
| Ovarian hormone in ovarian cycle | Progesterone come from corpus luteum & maintain pregnancy/lining of uterus |
| Uterine (menstrual cycle) | Menses, Proliferative, & Secretory |
| Uterine (menstrual cycle) | to prepare for pregnancy |
| Proliferative | lining thickens; ovulation comes right after |
| Secretory | in case of pregnancy, more blood vessels in glands for placenta; lining thickens also; if not pregnant: go to menses phase |
| Simultaneously | Follicular genesis & Oogenesis |
| Folliculargenesis | Changes in follicles to support egg development |
| Oogenesis | After puberty, primary oocyte will loose half of its genetic material to be ready for fertilization |
| Folliculogenesis | the follicles will produce estrogen |
| Folliculogenesis | signal is hit, * out of the thousand will wake up (1st one will start sereting estrogen, inhibiting others); 5/8 will turn to primary (1st layer of supporting cells); 3/5 will turn to secondary (2 layers of supporting cells); 2/3 will turn to tertiary; |
| Folliculogenesis | 1/1000 will be the ovulating folliculle |
| Oogenesis | primary oocyte will be maintained up until after puberty (23 pairs) -> after it goes meiosis: divide & get half of its genetic materials (23 chromosomes) |
| Mature ovum | loose its half of its genetic material |
| Luteal Phase | development of corpus luteum from the remaining of the ovulating follicle; release: estrogen & progesterone |
| Luteal Phase | w/ pregnancy: the corpus luteum will last up to 3 months secreting the hormones (until the placenta can secret on its own) |
| Luteal Phase | w/o pregnancy; 28 days of hormones secretion |
| Menses | last 1-5 days; shedding of lining due to drop of progesterone & estrogen |
| Proliferative | last 6-14 days; building lining (endometrium) of uterus; hold more blood vessels & uterine glands |
| Secretory | last 14-28 days; increase # of blood vessels & glands; promote development of placenta |
| Progesterone | increase due to corpus luteum after ovulation |
| Estrogen | increase due to follicles-developing |
| Estrogen | increase due to corpus luteum |
| Estrogen | b4 ovulation: build lining/proliferative phase; after ovulation: help maintain lining; end of pregnancy: prepare lactation |
| Progesterone | no effect before ovulation; after ovulation: primarily maintain lining; during pregnancy: inhibit smooth muscle contraction from uterus (stabilize baby) |
| Progesterone | when hormones drop, it allow SM contractions to push baby out |
| Septa | inward projections of the tunica divide the testis into lobules |
| Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis | hypothalamus, interstitial cells, & anterior pituitary gland |
| FSH | stimulate spermatogenesis |
| Fimbriae | part of the uterine tube that captures the ovum |
| Uterus | provides mechanical protection & nutritional support for the developing embryo |
| Vagina | receives semen; serves as a passageway for menstrual flow |
| Progesterone | prepare mammary glands for lactatuion |
| Secretory phase | endometrial glands enlarge |
| Secretory phase | the corpus luteum is formed |
| Secretory phase | the fertilized ovum implants |
| Proliferative phase | development of functional layer |
| Proliferative phase | vesicular follicle growth |
| Proliferative phase | later cervical mucus becomes thin & crystalline |
| Descent/Migration | sperms need lower temp to develop & mature |
| Rete testis | network of tubules |
| Rete testis | reabsorption of testosterone |
| Prostatic urethra | carries both urine & semen |
| Testosterone | promotes sperm production |
| Ampulla in uterine tube | where fertilization occurs |
| Uterine tube | transport the fertilized egg to the uterus |
| Myometrium | uterine contractions during labor |
| Myometrium | expulsion of menstrual blood |
| Functional layer | in endometrium (inner lining of the uterus) that shed during menstruation |
| Oogenesis | oocyte development before birth and after puberty |
| Follicular phase | folliculogenesis |
| Folliculogenesis | lead to the development of a mature follicle that will eventually ovulate |
| Estrogen | responsible for proliferative phase |
| FSH | primarily produce in pituitary gland |
| Estrogen | primarily produce in ovaries |
Created by:
FuirzH