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bio final 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the organizational hierarchy in animals from simplest to most complex? | Cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism |
| What is a cell? | The basic structural and functional unit of life. |
| What is a tissue? | A group of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. |
| What is an organ? | A structure made of two or more tissue types working together for a specific function. |
| What is an organ system? | A group of organs that work together to perform major body functions. |
| What is an organism? | A complete living individual. |
| Give one human example of the levels of organization from cell to organism. | Cardiac muscle cell → cardiac muscle tissue → heart → cardiovascular system → human |
| What are the 4 major tissue types in animals? | Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue |
| What is simple squamous epithelium? | A single layer of thin, flat cells specialized for rapid diffusion and filtration. |
| Where is simple squamous epithelium found? | Alveoli, capillaries, and lining of blood vessels |
| What is the main function of simple squamous epithelium? | Diffusion, filtration, and reducing friction |
| What is simple cuboidal epithelium? | A single layer of cube-shaped cells specialized for secretion and absorption. |
| Where is simple cuboidal epithelium found? | Kidney tubules, glands, and gland ducts |
| What is the main function of simple cuboidal epithelium? | Secretion and absorption |
| What is simple columnar epithelium? | A single layer of tall, rectangular cells, sometimes with microvilli or goblet cells. |
| Where is simple columnar epithelium found? | Lining of the stomach and intestines |
| What is the main function of simple columnar epithelium? | Absorption and secretion |
| What is pseudostratified epithelium? | A single layer of cells that appears multilayered because nuclei are at different heights. |
| Where is pseudostratified epithelium found? | Trachea and much of the upper respiratory tract |
| What is the main function of pseudostratified epithelium? | Secretion of mucus and movement of mucus by cilia |
| What is stratified squamous epithelium? | Many layers of cells with flattened cells at the surface for protection. |
| Where is stratified squamous epithelium found? | Skin, mouth, esophagus, and vagina |
| What is the main function of stratified squamous epithelium? | Protection from abrasion |
| What is glandular epithelium? | Epithelial tissue specialized to produce and secrete substances. |
| Where is glandular epithelium found? | Endocrine glands and exocrine glands |
| What is the main function of glandular epithelium? | Secretion of hormones, enzymes, sweat, saliva, mucus, or other substances |
| What is loose fibrous connective tissue? | Connective tissue with loosely arranged fibers and many cells in a soft matrix. |
| What is the function of loose fibrous connective tissue? | Binds organs, cushions tissues, and holds tissue fluid |
| Where is loose fibrous connective tissue found? | Under epithelia and around organs |
| What is adipose tissue? | Connective tissue specialized for fat storage. |
| What is the function of adipose tissue? | Energy storage, insulation, and cushioning |
| Where is adipose tissue found? | Under skin and around organs |
| What is dense fibrous connective tissue? | Connective tissue with densely packed collagen fibers. |
| What is the function of dense fibrous connective tissue? | Strong attachment and resistance to pulling forces |
| Where is dense fibrous connective tissue found? | Tendons and ligaments |
| What is hyaline cartilage? | Smooth, flexible connective tissue with collagen fibers in a firm gel-like matrix. |
| What is the function of hyaline cartilage? | Support, cushioning, and reducing friction at joints |
| Where is hyaline cartilage found? | Ends of bones, nose, trachea, and embryonic skeleton |
| What is compact bone? | Hard connective tissue with calcium salts and collagen arranged in osteons. |
| What is the function of compact bone? | Support, protection, mineral storage, and blood cell formation support |
| Where is compact bone found? | On the outside of bones, especially the shaft of long bones. |
| What is fluid connective tissue? | Connective tissue with cells suspended in a liquid matrix. |
| What are the main fluid connective tissues? | Blood and lymph |
| What is the function of fluid connective tissue? | Transport of gases, nutrients, wastes, and immune cells |
| What are the 3 muscle tissue types? | Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle |
| What does skeletal muscle look like? | Long cylindrical cells with striations and multiple nuclei |
| What is the function of skeletal muscle? | Voluntary body movement and posture |
| Where is skeletal muscle found? | Attached to bones |
| Is skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary? | Voluntary |
| What does smooth muscle look like? | Spindle-shaped cells without striations and with one nucleus |
| What is the function of smooth muscle? | Moves materials through internal organs |
| Where is smooth muscle found? | Walls of intestines, blood vessels, bladder, uterus, and other hollow organs |
| Is smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary? | Involuntary |
| What does cardiac muscle look like? | Branched striated cells with intercalated discs and usually one nucleus |
| What is the function of cardiac muscle? | Pumps blood through the body |
| Where is cardiac muscle found? | Heart wall |
| Is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary? | Involuntary |
| What are neurons? | Nerve cells specialized to receive, process, and transmit impulses |
| Where are neurons found? | Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves |
| What is the function of neurons? | Communication by electrical and chemical signals |
| What are microglia? | Small neuroglia that act as phagocytes in the CNS |
| What is the function of microglia? | Protect CNS tissue by engulfing pathogens, dead cells, and debris. |
| What are astrocytes? | Star-shaped neuroglia in the CNS |
| What is the function of astrocytes? | Support neurons, regulate the chemical environment, and help form the blood-brain barrier |
| What are oligodendrocytes? | CNS neuroglia that form myelin around axons |
| What is the function of oligodendrocytes? | Insulate axons and speed nerve impulse conduction |
| What is the dorsal body cavity? | The major body cavity that contains the cranial and vertebral cavities |
| What organs are found in the dorsal body cavity? | Brain and spinal cord |
| What is the cranial cavity? | The dorsal sub-cavity that contains the brain |
| What is the vertebral or spinal cavity? | The dorsal sub-cavity that contains the spinal cord |
| What is the ventral body cavity? | The major body cavity that contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities |
| What organs are found in the thoracic cavity? | Heart and lungs |
| What organs are found in the abdominal cavity? | Stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and most intestines |
| What organs are found in the pelvic cavity? | Urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum |
| What is feedback in biology? | A process in which the output of a system affects that same system |
| What is negative feedback? | A feedback mechanism that reverses a change and helps maintain homeostasis |
| What is positive feedback? | A feedback mechanism that amplifies a change |
| Which type of feedback is more common in the body? | Negative feedback |
| How does a hydra exchange gases with the environment? | By diffusion across its body surface |
| How does an earthworm exchange gases with the environment? | By diffusion through its moist skin |
| How does a grasshopper exchange gases with the environment? | Through a tracheal system connected to spiracles |
| How do fish exchange gases with the environment? | Through gills |
| How do mammals exchange gases with the environment? | Through lungs, especially the alveoli |
| What part of the brain starts the breathing process? | The respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and pons |
| What happens during inhalation? | The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, thoracic volume increases, pressure drops, and air flows into the lungs |
| What happens during exhalation? | The diaphragm and external intercostals relax, thoracic volume decreases, pressure rises, and air flows out |
| What is external respiration? | Gas exchange between alveoli and pulmonary capillary blood |
| During external respiration, where does oxygen move? | From alveoli into the blood |
| During external respiration, where does carbon dioxide move? | From blood into the alveoli |
| What is internal respiration? | Gas exchange between systemic blood and body tissues |
| During internal respiration, where does oxygen move? | From blood into body cells |
| During internal respiration, where does carbon dioxide move? | From body cells into the blood |
| How is most oxygen transported in the blood? | Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells |
| How is most carbon dioxide transported in the blood? | As bicarbonate ions in plasma |
| How does a hydra move materials through its body? | By diffusion and the gastrovascular cavity; it has no true circulatory system |
| How does a flatworm move materials through its body? | By diffusion and the gastrovascular cavity; it has no true circulatory system |
| How does a sea star move fluids through its body? | Mainly through its water vascular system and coelomic fluid |
| What type of circulatory system does a grasshopper have? | Open circulatory system with hemolymph |
| What type of circulatory system does an earthworm have? | Closed circulatory system |
| What type of circulatory system does a fish have? | Closed circulatory system with single circulation and 2 chamber heart |
| What type of circulatory system does a frog have? | Closed circulatory system with double circulation and a 3-chambered heart |
| What type of circulatory system does a bird have? | Closed circulatory system with double circulation and a 4-chambered heart |
| What type of circulatory system does a human have? | Closed circulatory system with double circulation and a 4-chambered heart |
| What is hemoglobin? | An oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells |
| What is hemolymph? | The circulatory fluid of animals with open circulatory systems, such as many arthropods |
| What is the main difference between hemoglobin and hemolymph? | Hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen; hemolymph is the fluid that circulates in an open system |
| Put blood vessels in order from leaving the heart to returning to the heart. | Artery → arteriole → capillary → venule → vein |
| What is the function of the coronary arteries? | They supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle |
| Where are the coronary arteries located? | On the surface of the heart |
| What is systole? | The contraction phase of the heart, especially the ventricles |
| What is diastole? | The relaxation phase of the heart |
| How is blood pressure reported? | As systolic pressure over diastolic pressure, in mmHg |
| What is a cardiac cycle? | One complete heartbeat, including atrial contraction, ventricular contraction, and relaxation |
| What is the pulmonary circuit? | The circuit that carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart |
| What is the systemic circuit? | The circuit that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back |
| What is a portal system? | A circulatory pathway in which blood passes through two capillary beds before returning to the heart |
| What is the major portal system in humans? | The hepatic portal system |
| What is plasma? | The liquid portion of blood |
| What are formed elements of blood? | Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets |
| What is the main function of red blood cells? | Transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide |
| What is the main function of white blood cells? | Defense against infection and disease |
| What is the main function of platelets? | Blood clotting |
| What is anemia? | A condition in which the blood has too few red blood cells or too little hemoglobin |
| What can cause anemia? | Iron deficiency, blood loss, low red blood cell production, or abnormal red blood cells |
| What are common symptoms of anemia? | Fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and dizziness |
| What antigens are found on type A blood? | A antigens |
| What antibodies are found in type A blood plasma? | Anti-B antibodies |
| Type A blood can donate to which blood types? | A and AB |
| Type A blood can receive blood from which blood types? | A and O |
| What antigens are found on type B blood? | B antigens |
| What antibodies are found in type B blood plasma? | Anti-A antibodies |
| Type B blood can donate to which blood types? | B and AB |
| Type B blood can receive blood from which blood types? | B and O |
| What antigens are found on type AB blood? | A and B antigens |
| What antibodies are found in type AB blood plasma? | Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies |
| Type AB blood can donate to which blood types? | AB only |
| Type AB blood can receive blood from which blood types? | A, B, AB, and O |
| What antigens are found on type O blood? | No A or B antigens |
| What antibodies are found in type O blood plasma? | Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies |
| Type O blood can donate to which blood types? | A, B, AB, and O |
| Type O blood can receive blood from which blood types? | O only |
| What happens if a person receives the wrong ABO blood type? | Antibodies bind to the donor red blood cells, causing agglutination and hemolysis |
| Why is receiving the wrong blood type dangerous? | It can block blood vessels, damage organs, and be fatal |
| What is the function of a platelet? | To help form blood clots and reduce blood loss |
| How does dentition differ in herbivores? | Herbivores usually have broad flat molars for grinding and reduced or absent canines |
| How does dentition differ in carnivores? | Carnivores have large sharp canines and blade-like teeth for tearing meat |
| How does dentition differ in omnivores? | Omnivores have a mix of teeth for tearing and grinding |
| What is the difference between primary and accessory digestive organs? | Primary organs form the alimentary canal and food passes through them; accessory organs help digestion but food does not pass through them |
| What are the primary digestive organs? | Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus |
| What are the accessory digestive organs? | Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, teeth, and tongue |
| What are 3 common liver disorders often taught in basic biology? | Hepatitis, cirrhosis, and fatty liver disease |
| What is hepatitis? | Inflammation of the liver, often caused by viruses, alcohol, or toxins |
| What is cirrhosis? | Chronic liver damage that replaces healthy liver tissue with scar tissue |
| What is fatty liver disease? | A condition in which excess fat builds up in the liver |
| What is fiber? | Indigestible plant material, mainly certain carbohydrates such as cellulose, that helps move food through the digestive tract |
| What foods are good sources of fiber? | Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains |
| What is a vitamin? | An organic nutrient needed in small amounts for normal metabolism and health |
| What is a mineral? | An inorganic nutrient needed in small amounts for body structure and function |
| What kind of nervous system does a cnidarian such as a hydra have? | A nerve net |
| What kind of nervous system does a flatworm have? | A ladder-like nervous system with anterior ganglia and longitudinal nerve cords |
| What kind of nervous system does an earthworm have? | A cerebral ganglion and a ventral nerve cord with segmental ganglia |
| What kind of nervous system does a crab have? | A more centralized nervous system with a brain and ventral nerve cord |
| What kind of nervous system does a squid have? | A highly developed brain and complex nervous system |
| What kind of nervous system does a mammal have? | A highly centralized CNS with a large brain and spinal cord plus a complex PNS |
| What does CNS stand for? | Central nervous system |
| What structures make up the CNS? | Brain and spinal cord |
| What are the main functions of the CNS? | Integrating sensory information, processing information, and coordinating responses |
| What are the meninges? | The three protective connective tissue membranes around the brain and spinal cord |
| What are the 3 meninges? | Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater |
| What is gray matter? | Nervous tissue rich in neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated fibers |
| What is white matter? | Nervous tissue rich in myelinated axons |
| Why is white matter white? | Because of the lipid-rich myelin |
| What is the main function of the frontal lobe? | Voluntary motor control, planning, reasoning, and speech production |
| What is the main function of the parietal lobe? | Processing touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and spatial awareness |
| What is the main function of the temporal lobe? | Hearing, memory, and language understanding |
| What is the main function of the occipital lobe? | Vision |
| What are the 3 main parts of the diencephalon? | Thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus |
| What is the function of the thalamus? | Relays sensory information to the cerebrum |
| What is the function of the hypothalamus? | Maintains homeostasis and controls the autonomic nervous system and pituitary gland |
| What is the function of the epithalamus? | Contains the pineal gland and helps regulate biological rhythms |
| What is a reflex arc? | A reflex arc is the rapid automatic neural pathway from receptor to sensory neuron to CNS to motor neuron to effector. |
| What are the parts of a reflex arc in order? | Receptor → sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron → effector |
| Why are reflexes important? | They allow rapid responses without requiring conscious thought first |
| What do sensory neurons do? | Carry information from receptors to the CNS |
| What do motor neurons do? | Carry commands from the CNS to muscles or glands |
| What is the difference between somatic sensory neurons and visceral sensory neurons? | Somatic sensory neurons carry information from skin, muscles, and joints; visceral sensory neurons carry information from internal organs |
| What is the difference between somatic motor neurons and autonomic motor neurons? | Somatic motor neurons control skeletal muscle; autonomic motor neurons control smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands |
| What does it mean for a neuron axon to be polarized? | The inside of the axon is more negative than the outside at rest |
| How is a neuron’s resting polarization created? | By the sodium-potassium pump and unequal ion distribution across the membrane |
| Does an axon stay polarized all the time? | No; it depolarizes during an action potential and then repolarizes |
| What is the role of sodium in neuron function? | Sodium enters the axon during depolarization |
| What is the role of potassium in neuron function? | Potassium leaves the axon during repolarization |
| What is the role of calcium in neuron function? | Calcium enters the axon terminal and triggers neurotransmitter release |
| What is the difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland? | Endocrine glands release hormones into the blood; exocrine glands release substances through ducts |
| Give examples of endocrine glands. | Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, and pancreatic islets |
| Give examples of exocrine glands. | Sweat glands, salivary glands, and digestive enzyme glands |
| What is a pheromone? | A chemical signal released by one individual that affects other members of the same species |
| What is the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland? | The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and links the nervous and endocrine systems |
| How does the hypothalamus communicate with the anterior pituitary? | By releasing hormones into the hypophyseal portal blood system |
| How does the hypothalamus communicate with the posterior pituitary? | By nerve impulses through axons; hormones made in the hypothalamus are stored and released from the posterior pituitary |
| What hormones are associated with the posterior pituitary? | ADH and oxytocin |
| What disorders can result from abnormal thyroid function? | Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, goiter, and Graves disease |
| What is hypothyroidism? | Underactive thyroid function that slows metabolism |
| What is hyperthyroidism? | Overactive thyroid function that speeds metabolism |
| What is a goiter? | Enlargement of the thyroid gland |
| How is blood calcium regulated? | Mainly by parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and vitamin D |
| What does parathyroid hormone do to blood calcium levels? | Raises blood calcium levels |
| What does calcitonin do to blood calcium levels? | Lowers blood calcium levels |
| What is the difference between Type I and Type II diabetes? | Type I is usually due to little or no insulin production; Type II is usually due to insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency |
| What hormone is released by the pineal gland? | Melatonin |
| What is the effect of melatonin? | It helps regulate circadian rhythms and sleep-wake cycles |
| What are the main functions of the lymphatic system? | Returns excess tissue fluid to the blood, absorbs fats, and helps defend against disease |
| What are lymphatic vessels? | Thin-walled vessels that return lymph to the bloodstream |
| What is lymph? | Fluid in lymphatic vessels derived from interstitial fluid |
| What do lymph nodes do? | Filter lymph and house immune cells that fight infection |
| What is the spleen? | A lymphatic organ that filters blood and helps immune responses |
| What is the function of the spleen? | Removes old red blood cells, stores blood, and helps fight pathogens in blood |
| What is the thymus? | A lymphatic organ where T lymphocytes mature |
| What are tonsils? | Lymphatic tissue masses that help trap pathogens entering through the mouth and nose |
| What is the role of bone marrow in immunity? | Produces blood cells and is where B cells mature |
| What is inflammation? | A local nonspecific response to tissue injury or infection |
| What happens during the inflammatory response? | Chemicals such as histamine cause vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and white blood cell movement into tissues |
| What are common signs of inflammation? | Redness, heat, swelling, pain, and sometimes loss of function |
| What are innate defenses? | Nonspecific defenses present from birth that act quickly against pathogens |
| What are examples of innate defenses? | Skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid, lysozyme, inflammation, fever, phagocytes, interferons, complement, and NK cells |
| What is the first line of innate defense? | Physical and chemical barriers such as skin and mucous membranes |
| What is the second line of innate defense? | Internal nonspecific defenses such as inflammation, phagocytes, fever, and antimicrobial proteins |
| What are the 3 broad steps of adaptive defenses? | Antigen recognition, lymphocyte activation and clonal expansion, and effector response with memory formation |
| What is adaptive immunity? | A specific defense response that targets particular antigens and forms memory |
| Which cells are destroyed by HIV? | Helper T cells, especially CD4+ T cells |
| What is transplant rejection? | Transplant rejection is when the recipient’s immune system recognizes antigen proteins on the donor tissue as foreign and attacks the transplanted tissue. |
| Why does transplant rejection happen? | Because the immune system detects foreign antigens on the donor tissue |
| What is the primary function of the reproductive system? | Produces gametes and allows reproduction |
| What are major organs of the male reproductive system? | Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, and urethra |
| What are major organs of the female reproductive system? | Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands |
| What is the primary function of the excretory or renal system? | Removes nitrogenous wastes and helps regulate water, salts, and pH |
| What are major organs of the excretory or renal system? | Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra |
| What is the primary function of the skeletal system? | Support, protection, movement assistance, mineral storage, and blood cell formation |
| What are the major organs of the skeletal system? | Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints |
| What is the primary function of the muscular system? | Movement, posture, and heat production |
| What are the major organs of the muscular system? | Skeletal muscles and associated tendons |
| What is the primary function of the integumentary system? | Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, and prevention of water loss |
| What are the major organs of the integumentary system? | Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and oil glands |
| Which tissue type lines surfaces and cavities of the body? | Epithelial tissue |
| Which tissue type mainly supports, binds, and protects? | Connective tissue |
| Which tissue type contracts to produce movement? | Muscle tissue |
| Which tissue type specializes in communication? | Nervous tissue |
| Which feedback type helps maintain homeostasis? | Negative feedback |
| Which respiratory structure is the main site of gas exchange in mammals? | Alveoli |
| In a closed circulatory system, does blood stay inside vessels? | Yes |
| In an open circulatory system, does the circulatory fluid stay entirely inside vessels? | No |
| Which blood type is the universal donor for red blood cells? | Type O |
| Which blood type is the universal recipient for red blood cells? | Type AB |
| Which cells carry oxygen in vertebrate blood? | Red blood cells |
| Which cells help fight infection? | White blood cells |
| Which formed elements are cell fragments rather than whole cells? | Platelets |
| Which brain lobe is most associated with vision? | Occipital lobe |
| Which brain lobe is most associated with hearing? | Temporal lobe |
| Which brain lobe is most associated with voluntary motor control and planning? | Frontal lobe |
| Which brain lobe is most associated with touch and spatial awareness? | Parietal lobe |
| Which part of the diencephalon is the major sensory relay station? | Thalamus |
| Which part of the diencephalon is the major homeostatic control center? | Hypothalamus |
| Which immune cells mature in the thymus? | T lymphocytes |
| Which immune cells mature in bone marrow? | B lymphocytes |
| Which hormone is most associated with sleep cycles? | Melatonin |
| Which gland is called the master gland, even though it is controlled by the hypothalamus? | Pituitary gland |
| Which hormone raises blood calcium? | Parathyroid hormone |
| Which hormone lowers blood calcium? | Calcitonin |
| Which part of the adrenal gland controls the short-term stress response? | The adrenal medulla. |
| Which hormones are released by the adrenal medulla during short-term stress? | Epinephrine and norepinephrine. |
| How do epinephrine and norepinephrine help in short-term stress? | They prepare the body for fight-or-flight by increasing heart rate and blood pressure, raising blood glucose, opening the airways, and redirecting blood toward important organs and skeletal muscle. |
| Which part of the adrenal gland controls the long-term stress response? | The adrenal cortex. |
| Which hormone of the adrenal cortex is most associated with long-term stress? | Cortisol. |
| How does cortisol help in long-term stress? | It helps maintain fuel supplies by promoting the breakdown of stored nutrients, increasing blood glucose, and suppressing inflammation and parts of the immune response. |
| Which adrenal cortex hormone may also be included in the long-term stress response in A&P? | Aldosterone. |
| How does aldosterone help during long-term stress? | It causes sodium and water retention, which increases blood volume and blood pressure. |
| What pathway stimulates the adrenal medulla during short-term stress? | The sympathomedullary pathway (SAM pathway) through the sympathetic nervous system. |
| What pathway stimulates the adrenal cortex during long-term stress? | The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis). |
| What is the hormone pathway for long-term stress? | Hypothalamus releases CRH → anterior pituitary releases ACTH → adrenal cortex releases cortisol. |
| What hormones are involved in the adrenal gland stress response? | Short-term stress: epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla. Long-term stress: cortisol, and often aldosterone, from the adrenal cortex. |
| Where does carbohydrate digestion begin? | In the mouth, with salivary amylase. |
| What happens to carbohydrate digestion in the stomach? | Stomach acid stops or inactivates salivary amylase, so carbohydrate digestion pauses there. |
| Where does carbohydrate digestion continue after the stomach? | In the small intestine, with pancreatic amylase and brush border enzymes. |
| Where does protein digestion begin? | In the stomach. |
| What begins protein digestion in the stomach? | Hydrochloric acid denatures proteins, and pepsin begins breaking them down. |
| Where does protein digestion continue after the stomach? | In the small intestine, with pancreatic proteases such as trypsin. |
| Where does most fat digestion take place? | In the small intestine. |
| What is the role of bile in fat digestion? | Bile emulsifies fat, breaking large fat globules into smaller droplets so lipase can work better. |
| Does bile chemically digest fat? | No. Bile emulsifies fat, but pancreatic lipase is the enzyme that digests it. |
| What enzyme mainly digests fats in the small intestine? | Pancreatic lipase. |
| What happens to acidic chyme when it enters the duodenum? | It is neutralized by bicarbonate from the pancreas. |
| Why is stomach acid neutralized in the duodenum? | To protect the small intestine and allow pancreatic enzymes to work properly. |
| What is the basic path of carbohydrate digestion? | Mouth with salivary amylase, pause in the stomach, then continue in the small intestine with pancreatic amylase and brush border enzymes. |
| What is the basic path of protein digestion? | Begins in the stomach with acid and pepsin, then continues in the small intestine with pancreatic proteases. |
| What is the basic path of fat digestion? | Bile emulsifies fat in the small intestine, then pancreatic lipase digests it. |
| Which macromolecule begins digestion in the mouth? | Carbohydrates. |
| Which macromolecule begins digestion in the stomach? | Proteins. |
| Which macromolecule depends on bile and pancreatic lipase in the small intestine? | Fats. |
| What is the simplest way to remember where each macromolecule starts digestion? | Carbs start in the mouth, proteins start in the stomach, and fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. |
| 1. Front: What does positive or negative mean in a blood type? | It refers to the Rh factor, usually the RhD antigen, on red blood cells. Positive means the RhD antigen is present; negative means it is absent. |
| 2. Front: What does A+ mean? | A+ blood has A antigens and also has the RhD antigen. |
| 3. Front: What does O- mean? | O- blood has no A or B antigens and does not have the RhD antigen. |
| 4. Front: Can an Rh-negative person receive Rh-positive red blood cells? | Usually no. Rh-negative recipients should receive Rh-negative blood. |
| 5. Front: Can an Rh-positive person receive Rh-negative red blood cells? | Yes. Rh-positive recipients can receive either Rh-positive or Rh-negative red blood cells. |
| 6. Front: Which is safer to remember: positive into negative, or negative into positive? | Negative into positive is okay; positive into negative is the problem. |
| 7. Front: What is the basic Rh rule for blood transfusions? | Negative should get negative. Positive can get positive or negative. |
| 8. Front: What creates the 8 common blood types? | The ABO group combined with Rh positive or negative status creates A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, and O-. |
| What are the two main divisions of the nervous system? | Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
| What structures make up the central nervous system (CNS)? | Brain and spinal cord |
| What are the two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)? | Sensory (afferent) pathway and motor (efferent) pathway |
| What does the sensory (afferent) pathway do? | Carries information from receptors to the CNS |
| What does the motor (efferent) pathway do? | Carries commands from the CNS to effectors |
| What are the three divisions of the sensory pathway? | Somatic sensory, special sensory, and visceral sensory |
| What does the somatic sensory pathway carry? | Sensory information from skin, skeletal muscles, joints, and related structures |
| What does the special sensory pathway carry? | Sensory information for the special senses such as vision, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium |
| What does the visceral sensory pathway carry? | Sensory information from the internal organs |
| What are the two divisions of the motor pathway? | Somatic pathway and autonomic pathway |
| What does the somatic motor pathway control? | Voluntary control of skeletal muscle |
| What does the autonomic motor pathway control? | Involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands |
| What are the three divisions of the autonomic pathway? | Sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric |
| What is the general function of the sympathetic division? | Fight-or-flight responses |
| What is the general function of the parasympathetic division? | Rest-and-digest responses |
| What is the general function of the enteric division? | Local control of the digestive tract |
| Which autonomic divisions help regulate pupil size? | Sympathetic and parasympathetic |
| Which autonomic divisions help regulate heart rate? | Sympathetic and parasympathetic |
| Which autonomic division is most specifically associated with the digestive tract? | Enteric division |
| In a simple nervous system chart, what is usually the endpoint of the somatic motor pathway? | Skeletal muscle |
| In a simple nervous system chart, what tissues are the main effectors of the autonomic pathway? | Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands |
| What is another name for the sensory pathway? | Afferent pathway |
| What is another name for the motor pathway? | Efferent pathway |
| What is another name for the somatic motor pathway? | Voluntary pathway |
| What is another name for the autonomic motor pathway? | Involuntary pathway |
| What is the full organizational breakdown of the nervous system? | Nervous system → CNS and PNS; CNS → brain and spinal cord; PNS → sensory and motor; sensory → somatic sensory, special sensory, visceral sensory; motor → somatic and autonomic; autonomic → sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric |
| Nervous system → ? | CNS and PNS |
| CNS → ? | Brain and spinal cord |
| PNS → ? | Sensory pathway and motor pathway |
| Sensory pathway → ? | Somatic sensory, special sensory, visceral sensory |
| Motor pathway → ? | Somatic pathway and autonomic pathway |
| Autonomic pathway → ? | Sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric |
| What are the two main body cavities in animals? | Dorsal body cavity and ventral body cavity. |
| What are the sub-cavities of the dorsal body cavity? | Cranial cavity and vertebral/spinal cavity. |
| What are the sub-cavities of the ventral body cavity? | Thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity. |
| What is the abdominopelvic cavity divided into? | Abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. |
| What are pleural cavities? | Thoracic sub-cavities that contain the lungs. |
| What is the pericardial cavity? | The thoracic sub-cavity that contains the heart. |
| What is the mediastinum? | The central region of the thoracic cavity between the lungs; it contains the heart, trachea, esophagus, and major vessels. |
| What nerve mainly carries the signal from the brain to the diaphragm for inhalation? | The phrenic nerve. |
| What is the full basic sequence of inhalation? | Respiratory centers signal the diaphragm and external intercostals → they contract → thoracic volume increases → pressure decreases → air moves into the lungs. |
| What is the full basic sequence of exhalation? | Diaphragm and external intercostals relax → thoracic volume decreases → pressure increases → air moves out of the lungs. |
| During external respiration, what happens to oxygen after it enters the blood? | Most oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. |
| During internal respiration, what happens to carbon dioxide after it enters the blood? | Most carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ions in the plasma. |
| What route does the hepatic portal system take? | It carries nutrient-rich blood from digestive organs to the liver before the blood returns to the heart. |
| What is agglutination in a wrong blood transfusion? | Clumping of red blood cells when antibodies bind to the wrong blood type antigens. |
| What is hemolysis in a wrong blood transfusion? | The breaking open or destruction of red blood cells. |
| What is an effector in a reflex arc? | A muscle or gland that carries out the response. |
| What does a sensory receptor do in a reflex arc? | It detects the stimulus and starts the nerve signal. |
| What is the simplest difference between innate and adaptive defenses? | Innate defenses are nonspecific and fast; adaptive defenses are specific, slower at first, and form memory. |
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lalayomama