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AP World ALL VOCAB
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| **Unit 1: The Global Tapestry** | Covers the development of major world religions, philosophies, and civilizations from 600 BCE–1450 CE, examining how belief systems shaped societies across Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. |
| 1-1 Buddhism | Religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama in India (~500 BCE); teaches the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path to end suffering and reach nirvana; spread across Asia via trade routes. |
| 1-2 Daoism | Chinese philosophy attributed to Laozi; emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao (the Way), simplicity, and non-action (wu wei); influenced Chinese culture and governance. |
| 1-3 Legalism | Chinese philosophy advocating strict laws and harsh punishments to maintain order; adopted by the Qin Dynasty to unify China; focused on state power over morality. |
| 1-4 Confucianism | Chinese philosophy by Confucius stressing filial piety, social hierarchy, education, and moral virtue; became the foundation of Chinese imperial governance and society. |
| 1-5 Ban Zhao | Han Dynasty Chinese scholar (~45–116 CE); wrote "Lessons for Women," reinforcing Confucian gender roles; first known female historian in China. |
| 1-6 Vedas | Oldest sacred Hindu texts (~1500 BCE); collection of hymns, rituals, and philosophy; foundational to Hinduism and early Indian religious practice. |
| 1-7 Upanishads | Hindu philosophical texts (~800–200 BCE) exploring concepts of Brahman (universal soul) and Atman (individual soul); shaped Hindu theology and influenced Buddhism. |
| 1-8 Siddhartha Gautama | Indian prince (~563–483 BCE) who renounced wealth, sought enlightenment, and became the Buddha; founder of Buddhism. |
| 1-9 Buddha | Title meaning "Enlightened One," given to Siddhartha Gautama after his enlightenment; symbolizes the ideal of spiritual awakening in Buddhism. |
| 1-10 Bhakti movement | Hindu devotional movement (~600–1700 CE) emphasizing personal love for a deity over ritual; challenged caste hierarchy and influenced Islam-Hindu relations in India. |
| 1-11 Hinduism | Major Indian religion with roots in the Vedas; centers on dharma, karma, reincarnation, and moksha; no single founder; polytheistic with diverse traditions. |
| 1-12 Zoroastrianism | Ancient Persian religion founded by Zoroaster; believes in one supreme god (Ahura Mazda) and cosmic struggle between good and evil; influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. |
| 1-13 Judaism | Monotheistic religion of the Hebrew people; centers on covenant with God, Torah, and ethical law; foundational to Christianity and Islam; one of the oldest surviving religions. |
| 1-14 Greek rationalism | Intellectual tradition emphasizing reason, logic, and empirical observation to understand the world; developed by Socrates, Plato, Aristotle; foundation of Western philosophy and science. |
| 1-15 Socrates | Greek philosopher (~470–399 BCE); used the Socratic method of questioning to explore ethics and knowledge; executed by Athens for corrupting youth; foundational to Western philosophy. |
| 1-16 Plato | Greek philosopher (~428–348 BCE), student of Socrates; developed theory of Forms and ideal government; wrote "The Republic"; foundational to Western political and philosophical thought. |
| 1-17 Ashoka | Mauryan emperor (~268–232 BCE); converted to Buddhism after bloody conquest; promoted Buddhist ethics, built infrastructure, spread Buddhism across Asia through missionaries. |
| 1-18 Aristotle | Greek philosopher (~384–322 BCE), student of Plato; contributed to logic, biology, politics, ethics; tutored Alexander the Great; synthesized Greek rationalism. |
| 1-19 Christianity | Monotheistic religion based on teachings of Jesus of Nazareth; spread through Roman Empire via St. Paul; became Rome's official religion by 380 CE; split into Catholic and Orthodox branches. |
| 1-20 Jesus of Nazareth | Jewish preacher (~4 BCE–30 CE) in Roman Palestine; central figure of Christianity; teachings on love, salvation, and resurrection spread globally after his crucifixion. |
| 1-21 St Paul | Early Christian missionary (~5–67 CE); traveled throughout the Roman Empire spreading Christianity; wrote many New Testament epistles; instrumental in transforming Christianity into a universal religion. |
| 1-22 Perpetua (martyr) | Roman Christian martyr (~181–203 CE); noblewoman who refused to renounce faith and was executed; her diary is an early Christian primary source illustrating persecution. |
| 1-23 Theravada Buddhism | Oldest surviving Buddhist school; emphasizes individual path to nirvana through meditation and monastic life; spread to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia; follows original Pali canon. |
| 1-24 Mahayana Buddhism | Major Buddhist branch; emphasizes universal salvation via bodhisattvas who delay nirvana to help others; spread to East Asia (China, Korea, Japan); more accessible to laypeople. |
| 1-25 Bhagavad Gita | Sacred Hindu text within the Mahabharata; dialogue between Prince Arjuna and god Krishna; teaches duty (dharma), devotion, and detachment; central to Hindu philosophy. |
| 1-26 Niger Valley | West African region home to early urban civilizations (e.g., Jenne-jeno) that developed independently, without monumental architecture, showing alternative paths to complex society. |
| 1-27 'Vertical integration' | Economic strategy used by Andean civilizations (e.g., Chavín, Inca) to control multiple ecological zones (coast, highlands, jungle) ensuring diverse resource access. |
| 1-28 Maya civilization | Mesoamerican civilization (~2000 BCE–1500 CE); known for writing, math, astronomy, city-states, trade; flourished in present-day Mexico and Central America. |
| 1-29 Teotihuacán | Large Mesoamerican city (~100 BCE–550 CE) near modern Mexico City; major trade hub; home to Pyramid of the Sun; influence spread across Mesoamerica. |
| 1-30 Bantu migration | Gradual southward spread of Bantu-speaking peoples across sub-Saharan Africa (~1000 BCE–1000 CE); spread agriculture, iron tools, and Bantu languages throughout Africa. |
| 1-31 Chaco Phenomenon | Ancestral Puebloan cultural florescence (~850–1150 CE) in present-day New Mexico; large ceremonial centers, roads, and trade networks across the American Southwest. |
| 1-32 Mound builders | Various North American peoples (Adena, Hopewell, Mississippian) who constructed large earthen mounds for burial, ceremony, and political authority (~1000 BCE–1600 CE). |
| 1-33 Hopewell culture | Native American culture (~100 BCE–500 CE) in the Ohio River Valley; known for extensive trade networks, elaborate burial mounds, and artistic craftsmanship. |
| 1-34 Chavín | Early Andean civilization (~900–200 BCE) in present-day Peru; religious center that spread artistic and cultural influence across the Andes; used vertical integration. |
| 1-35 Moche | Andean civilization (~100–800 CE) on Peru's north coast; known for irrigation agriculture, elaborate ceramics depicting daily life, and monumental adobe pyramids. |
| 1-36 Wari | Andean empire (~600–1000 CE) preceding the Inca; built roads, administrative centers, and practiced vertical integration; influenced later Inca state-building. |
| 1-37 Tiwanaku | Andean civilization (~500–1000 CE) near Lake Titicaca; major religious and trade center; spread influence through colonization and exchange of goods across the Andes. |
| 1-38 Muhammad | Prophet of Islam (~570–632 CE); received the Quran from Allah via angel Gabriel; founded the Islamic community in Arabia; his life and teachings are foundational to Islam. |
| 1-39 Quran | Holy scripture of Islam; believed to be the direct word of God revealed to Muhammad; written in Arabic; guides Muslim law, ethics, and worship. |
| 1-40 Pillars of Islam | Five core duties of Muslims: Shahada (faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (charity), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). |
| 1-41 Hijra | Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE; marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar; turning point in establishing the Muslim community (ummah). |
| 1-42 Umayyad caliphate | First Islamic dynasty (661–750 CE); expanded Islam from Spain to Central Asia; capital in Damascus; criticized for favoring Arab Muslims over converts. |
| 1-43 Abbasid caliphate | Islamic dynasty (750–1258 CE); capital in Baghdad; golden age of Islamic learning, trade, and culture; the House of Wisdom advanced science and philosophy. |
| 1-44 Ulama | Islamic religious scholars who interpret the Quran and sharia law; served as judges, teachers, and advisors; key to maintaining Islamic identity across diverse empires. |
| 1-45 House of Wisdom – Baghdad | Abbasid-era intellectual center in Baghdad (~830 CE); translated Greek, Persian, Indian texts; advanced math, astronomy, medicine; hub of Islamic Golden Age. |
| 1-46 Sufism | Mystical Islamic movement emphasizing personal spiritual experience and direct connection with God; spread Islam through peaceful missionary activity, especially in South and Southeast Asia. |
| 1-47 Anatolia | Peninsula in modern Turkey; crossroads of Asia and Europe; conquered by Seljuk Turks then Ottomans; previously Byzantine heartland; strategic for trade and conquest. |
| 1-48 West Africa – Timbuktu | Major city in the Mali/Songhay empires; thriving center of trans-Saharan trade, Islamic scholarship, and culture; home to the famous Sankore University. |
| 1-49 Madrassas | Islamic religious schools providing education in theology, law, and sciences; spread literacy and Islamic knowledge across the Muslim world; integral to Islamic civilization. |
| 1-50 Jesus Sutras | Chinese texts (~635 CE) blending Christian and Buddhist/Daoist language; brought by Nestorian Christians to Tang Dynasty China; evidence of early Christianity in East Asia. |
| 1-51 Nubian Christianity | Christianity adopted in the Nubian kingdoms (Nobatia, Makuria, Alodia) of northeastern Africa (~6th–14th CE); survived as a distinct African Christian tradition for centuries. |
| 1-52 Ethiopian Christianity | Christianity adopted in the Aksumite Empire (~4th CE); one of the world's oldest Christian churches; became central to Ethiopian identity and remained independent of Rome. |
| 1-53 Byzantine Empire | Eastern Roman Empire (~330–1453 CE); preserved Greek-Roman culture; spread Orthodox Christianity to Eastern Europe; capital Constantinople; fell to Ottomans in 1453. |
| 1-54 Feudalism | Medieval European political-economic system based on land exchange for military service; lords granted fiefs to vassals; shaped political fragmentation in post-Carolingian Europe. |
| 1-55 Constantinople – New Rome | Capital of the Byzantine Empire, founded by Emperor Constantine in 330 CE; major trade hub linking Europe and Asia; fell to Ottoman Turks in 1453. |
| 1-56 Caesaropapism | System where the emperor held supreme authority over both church and state; characteristic of the Byzantine Empire; contrasted with the Pope's power in Western Christianity. |
| 1-57 Eastern Orthodox Christianity | Christian branch of the Byzantine Empire; split from Roman Catholicism in the Great Schism (1054); spread to Russia, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe. |
| 1-58 The Crusades | Series of religious wars (1096–1291) launched by Western Christians to recapture the Holy Land from Muslims; increased East-West trade and cultural exchange despite violence. |
| 1-59 Kievan Rus | Medieval Slavic state (~882–1240 CE) centered in Kiev; converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity under Prince Vladimir; predecessor of modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. |
| 1-60 Prince Vladimir of Kiev | Ruler of Kievan Rus (~980–1015 CE); converted to Orthodox Christianity in 988; his baptism tied Rus politically and culturally to the Byzantine Empire. |
| 1-61 Western Christendom | The Christian communities of Western Europe under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope; defined European identity and politics in the medieval period. |
| 1-62 Charlemagne | Frankish king (768–814 CE) crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope in 800; united much of Western Europe; promoted Christianity and learning in the Carolingian Renaissance. |
| 1-63 Holy Roman Empire | Loose confederation of Central European territories (~962–1806 CE); claimed to revive the Roman Empire; tension between emperors and the Pope defined medieval European politics. |
| 1-64 Roman Catholic Church | Western Christian church based in Rome led by the Pope; dominated medieval European politics, education, and culture; clashed with Eastern Orthodoxy and later Protestantism. |
| **Unit 2: Networks of Exchange** | Examines the major trade routes connecting Afro-Eurasia and the Americas from 600–1450 CE, including the Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, and trans-Saharan routes, and their cultural/economic impacts. |
| 2-1 Silk Roads | Overland and sea trade network connecting China, Central Asia, Middle East, and Europe; facilitated exchange of goods (silk, spices), religions, diseases, and technologies. |
| 2-2 Black Death | Bubonic plague (~1347–1353 CE) that killed ~1/3 of Europe's population; spread along Silk Road trade routes; caused massive demographic, social, and economic upheaval. |
| 2-3 Sea Roads | Indian Ocean maritime trade network connecting East Africa, Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia; facilitated exchange of goods, Islam, and culture; driven by monsoon winds. |
| 2-4 Case of Srivijaya | Buddhist maritime empire (~7th–13th CE) in Sumatra; controlled Strait of Malacca; thrived on Indian Ocean trade; example of Sea Roads creating wealth and cultural exchange. |
| 2-5 Swahili civilization | East African coastal culture blending Bantu and Arab influences; flourished through Indian Ocean trade (~800–1500 CE); city-states like Kilwa traded gold, ivory, and enslaved people. |
| 2-6 Sand Roads | Trans-Saharan trade routes connecting North Africa and sub-Saharan West Africa; facilitated exchange of gold, salt, enslaved people, and Islam; made empires like Mali wealthy. |
| 2-7 Arabian camel | Key technology enabling trans-Saharan trade; camels could carry heavy loads across desert for long distances, transforming the Sahara from barrier into highway. |
| 2-8 Angkor Wat | Massive Hindu-then-Buddhist temple complex (~12th CE) in Cambodia; capital of the Khmer Empire; testament to Indian cultural influence via Indian Ocean trade routes. |
| 2-9 West African civilization | Broad term for complex societies in the Sahel and savanna (Mali, Ghana, Songhay); enriched by trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt; adopted Islam via merchants. |
| 2-10 Ghana | West African empire (~600–1200 CE); controlled trans-Saharan gold-salt trade; first of the major Sahelian empires; declined due to Almoravid pressure and internal strife. |
| 2-11 Mali | West African empire (~1235–1600 CE) succeeding Ghana; controlled gold-salt trade; under Mansa Musa, spread Islam and built Timbuktu into a center of learning. |
| 2-12 Trans-Saharan slave trade | Trade system moving enslaved Africans across the Sahara to North Africa and the Middle East; predated the Atlantic slave trade; part of broader Sand Roads exchange. |
| 2-13 Sui Dynasty | Short-lived Chinese dynasty (581–618 CE) that reunified China after centuries of division; built the Grand Canal linking north and south; laid groundwork for the Tang Dynasty. |
| 2-14 Tang Dynasty | Chinese dynasty (618–907 CE); cosmopolitan golden age; expanded territory, promoted Buddhism and Confucianism, supported long-distance trade along the Silk Roads. |
| 2-15 Song Dynasty | Chinese dynasty (960–1279 CE); era of economic revolution with paper money, gunpowder, printing; highly urbanized; lost northern territory to nomadic peoples. |
| 2-16 China's economic revolution | Transformation during the Song Dynasty: agricultural surplus, commercialization, paper money, urban growth, and increased trade created a proto-capitalist economy. |
| 2-17 Bushido | "Way of the warrior"; Japanese samurai code of honor emphasizing loyalty, martial skill, and death before dishonor; shaped Japanese military culture for centuries. |
| 2-18 Hangzhou | Capital of Southern Song Dynasty; one of the world's largest and wealthiest cities in the 12th–13th century; major center of commerce, culture, and manufacturing. |
| 2-19 Gunpowder | Chinese invention (~9th CE); revolutionized warfare globally after spreading via Mongols and Silk Roads to the Islamic world and Europe; key gunpowder empires emerged later. |
| 2-20 Foot binding | Chinese practice (~10th–20th CE) of tightly binding young girls' feet to restrict growth; symbol of femininity and status; reflected Confucian patriarchal gender norms. |
| 2-21 Tribute system | Chinese diplomatic system where neighboring states sent gifts and performed rituals acknowledging Chinese supremacy in exchange for trade rights and protection. |
| 2-22 Xiongnu Empire | Powerful nomadic confederation on China's northern steppe (~3rd BCE–1st CE); threatened Han China, prompting Great Wall construction; key pastoral-agrarian interaction example. |
| 2-23 Silla kingdom | Korean kingdom (~57 BCE–935 CE) that unified the Korean peninsula (~668 CE); adopted Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism; tributary state maintaining distinct Korean culture. |
| 2-24 Hangul | Korean phonetic alphabet created under King Sejong in 1443; designed to increase literacy among Koreans; distinct from Chinese characters used by elites. |
| 2-25 Shotoku Taishi | Japanese prince regent (~574–622 CE); promoted Buddhism and Confucianism; sent missions to Tang China to adopt Chinese governance, writing, and culture in Japan. |
| 2-26 Pastoral societies | Nomadic or semi-nomadic peoples who rely on herding livestock; inhabited steppes, deserts, and grasslands; played crucial roles in cross-regional trade and conquest. |
| 2-27 Madun | Xiongnu leader (~209 BCE) who united the steppe nomads and challenged Han China; established patterns of nomadic confederation that influenced later pastoral empires. |
| 2-28 Turkic peoples | Nomadic peoples of Central Asia who converted to Islam and built empires (Seljuk, Ottoman); spread Islam and connected trade networks from Central Asia to the Mediterranean. |
| 2-29 Almoravid Empire | Berber Muslim dynasty (~1050–1147 CE) in Northwest Africa and Spain; spread Sunni Islam into West Africa; contributed to Ghana's decline. |
| 2-30 Temujin (Chinggis Khan) | Mongol leader (~1162–1227 CE) who united Mongol tribes and launched the largest land empire in history; conquered Central Asia, China, and Persia. |
| 2-31 Mongol world war | Series of Mongol conquests (~1206–1350s CE) creating the largest contiguous land empire; devastated many regions but also facilitated unprecedented Eurasian trade and exchange (Pax Mongolica). |
| 2-32 Seljuk Turkic Empire | Turkic Muslim dynasty (~1037–1194 CE) ruling Persia and Anatolia; defeated Byzantines at Manzikert (1071); triggered the Crusades; carriers of Islamic culture. |
| 2-33 Khubilai Khan – Yuan Dynasty | Mongol ruler of China (r. 1260–1294 CE); founded the Yuan Dynasty; promoted trade along Silk Roads; welcomed Marco Polo to his court. |
| 2-34 Hulegu | Mongol leader (~1217–1265 CE); grandson of Chinggis Khan; destroyed Baghdad and the Abbasid Caliphate (1258); established the Ilkhanate in Persia. |
| 2-35 'Khanate of the Golden Horde' | Mongol state (~1240–1502 CE) controlling Russia and Central Asia; collected tribute from Russian princes; influenced Russian political development; converted to Islam. |
| **Unit 3: Land-Based Empires** | Explores the rise and consolidation of major land-based empires (Ottoman, Mughal, Ming, Safavid) from 1450–1750, including their administrative methods, religious policies, and cultural transformations. |
| 3-1 Igbo | West African people in modern Nigeria; known for decentralized governance without kings; active in Atlantic slave trade as victims; maintained distinct cultural traditions. |
| 3-2 Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) | Chinese dynasty that overthrew Mongol Yuan rule; rebuilt Great Wall, restored Confucian bureaucracy, launched Zheng He's voyages, then adopted isolationist policies. |
| 3-3 Zheng He | Chinese Muslim admiral (1371–1433 CE); led massive treasure fleets across Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia, India, and East Africa; demonstrated Ming power but voyages ended abruptly. |
| 3-4 Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) | Conflict between England and France over the French throne; stimulated French nationalism; Joan of Arc emerged; ended English territorial ambitions in France. |
| 3-5 Russian Empire | Expanded under Ivan III and later tsars after Mongol decline; used gunpowder and Cossacks to conquer Siberia and Central Asia; positioned between Europe and Asia. |
| 3-6 Akbar | Mughal emperor (r. 1556–1605 CE); expanded empire across India; promoted religious tolerance (Din-i-Ilahi), abolished jizya on non-Muslims; patronized arts and culture. |
| 3-7 Devshirme system | Ottoman practice of recruiting Christian boys from the Balkans, converting them to Islam, training them as soldiers (Janissaries) or administrators; created loyal slave-soldiers. |
| 3-8 Zamindar system | Mughal land revenue system where landlords (zamindars) collected taxes from peasants on behalf of the empire; later abused by zamindars extracting excessive revenue. |
| 3-9 Ottoman Empire | Turkic Muslim empire (~1299–1922 CE); conquered Constantinople (1453); controlled trade routes between Europe and Asia; multiethnic, governed through millet system. |
| 3-10 Ottoman Seizure of Constantinople (1453) | Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople using cannons, ending the Byzantine Empire; renamed it Istanbul; made the Ottomans the dominant Mediterranean power. |
| 3-11 Safavid Empire | Persian Shia Muslim empire (~1501–1736 CE); rival to Sunni Ottomans; Shia Islam became Persian identity; capital Isfahan was a cultural and artistic center. |
| 3-12 Malacca | Strategic port city on the Malay Peninsula; controlled the Strait of Malacca; a major center of Islamic conversion and Southeast Asian trade before Portuguese conquest (1511). |
| 3-14 Songhay Empire | West African empire (~1375–1591 CE) succeeding Mali; controlled trans-Saharan trade; capital Gao and Timbuktu were Islamic scholarly centers; fell to Moroccan invasion. |
| 3-15 Timbuktu | West African city in Mali/Songhay empires; renowned center of Islamic learning and trans-Saharan trade; home to Sankore University and hundreds of thousands of manuscripts. |
| 3-16 Mughal Empire | Muslim dynasty ruling most of India (~1526–1857 CE); blended Persian and Indian cultures; under Akbar reached cultural peak; declined due to religious conflict and European pressure. |
| 3-17 Protestant Reformation (1517) | Movement challenging Catholic Church authority; sparked by Martin Luther's 95 Theses; led to formation of Protestant denominations; transformed European religion and politics. |
| 3-18 Martin Luther (1483–1546) | German monk who launched the Protestant Reformation; challenged papal authority and indulgences; translated Bible into German; believed in salvation by faith alone. |
| 3-19 Thirty Years War (1618–1648) | Devastating European war combining religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants with political rivalries; ended with Peace of Westphalia establishing state sovereignty. |
| 3-20 Counter-Reformation / Council of Trent (1545–1563) | Catholic Church's response to Protestantism; reformed abuses, clarified doctrine, and strengthened Church authority; launched Jesuit missionary activity. |
| 3-21 Taki Onqoy | "Dancing sickness"; Andean millenarian religious movement (~1560s) rejecting Christianity and Spanish colonialism; natives believed indigenous gods would defeat the Christian god. |
| 3-22 Jesuits in China | Catholic missionary order (Society of Jesus) led by Matteo Ricci in China; used accommodation strategy—adopting Chinese dress/language—to spread Christianity in Ming/Qing courts. |
| 3-23 Wahhabi Islam | Puritan Islamic reform movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (18th CE) in Arabia; allied with the Saud family; rejected innovation and called for return to original Islam. |
| 3-24 Wang Yangming | Chinese Neo-Confucian philosopher (1472–1529 CE); emphasized moral intuition and introspection over classical text study; challenged orthodox Zhu Xi Confucianism. |
| 3-25 Kaozheng | Chinese "evidential scholarship" movement (~17th–18th CE); emphasized empirical research and textual criticism over abstract philosophy; influenced by intellectual skepticism. |
| 3-26 Mirabai (1498–1547) | Indian bhakti poet-saint who expressed devotion to Krishna through poetry and song; challenged caste and gender norms; symbol of Hindu devotional tradition. |
| 3-27 Sikhism | Religion founded by Guru Nanak in Punjab (~15th CE); monotheistic; rejects caste system; blends Hindu and Islamic elements; emerged in context of Hindu-Muslim interaction. |
| 3-28 Sunni v Shia Split | Division in Islam beginning 632 CE over succession after Muhammad; Sunnis accepted elected caliphs; Shia believed leadership should pass to Ali (Muhammad's cousin/son-in-law). |
| 3-29 Jizya | Tax imposed on non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) in Islamic states in exchange for protection and religious freedom; abolished by Akbar, reinstated by Aurangzeb in Mughal India. |
| 3-30 Millet system | Ottoman system allowing non-Muslim communities (Jews, Christians, Armenians) to govern their own religious and civil affairs under their own religious leaders within the empire. |
| 3-33 Fulbe | West African Muslim pastoral people (also called Fulani/Fula); spread Islam across the Sahel; led jihads and founded Islamic states including the Sokoto Caliphate in the 19th century. |
| **Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections** | Examines the dramatic global transformations from 1450–1750 caused by European exploration, colonization, the Columbian Exchange, Atlantic slave trade, and expanding commercial networks. |
| 4-1 Hernán Cortéz | Spanish conquistador (1485–1547) who conquered the Aztec Empire in 1521 using alliances with indigenous rivals, horses, and European diseases; established New Spain. |
| 4-2 The Great Dying | Mass death of indigenous Americans (~90% population loss) following European contact due to epidemic disease (smallpox, measles); transformed the Americas demographically. |
| 4-3 The Little Ice Age (13th–19th centuries) | Period of global cooling causing crop failures, famines, and social upheaval; contributed to the "General Crisis" of the 17th century worldwide. |
| 4-4 The General Crisis | Period of global upheaval (~1600s–1650s) including wars, revolutions, famines, and population decline; linked to the Little Ice Age and political instability worldwide. |
| 4-5 The Columbian Exchange | Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old World and the Americas after 1492; transformed diets, populations, and economies globally. |
| 4-6 Mercantilism | Economic theory that wealth is finite; colonies should supply raw materials to the mother country which exports manufactured goods; dominated European colonial policy 1500–1800. |
| 4-7 Mestizo | Person of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry; grew into a large social class in Spanish colonial Latin America; occupied middle position in the casta system. |
| 4-8 Mulattoes | Person of mixed European and African ancestry in the Americas; occupied a distinct position in the colonial racial hierarchy; more common in Brazil and the Caribbean. |
| 4-9 Settler colonies | Colonies where large numbers of European settlers displaced indigenous populations and established permanent communities; e.g., British North America, Australia, South Africa. |
| 4-10 Iroquois | Confederacy of six Native American nations in northeastern North America; powerful political alliance that influenced the formation of democratic ideas and resisted European colonization. |
| 4-11 Yasak | Tribute (usually furs) demanded by Russian tsars from Siberian indigenous peoples; drove Russian expansion into Siberia; similar to European extractive colonial practices. |
| 4-12 Qing Expansion | Expansion of the Manchu Qing Dynasty (~17th–18th CE) into Central Asia, Tibet, and Taiwan; largest extent of Chinese imperial territory; used military force and diplomacy. |
| 4-13 Inca Empire | South American empire (~1438–1533 CE) centered in Peru; controlled Andes through mit'a labor system, roads, and vertical integration; conquered by Pizarro with Spanish forces. |
| 4-14 Aztec Empire | Mesoamerican empire (~1345–1521 CE) centered at Tenochtitlán; extracted tribute from conquered peoples; known for human sacrifice; destroyed by Cortéz and indigenous allies. |
| 4-15 Aurangzeb | Mughal emperor (r. 1658–1707 CE); expanded empire to its greatest extent but reversed Akbar's tolerance by reimposing jizya and destroying Hindu temples; his reign accelerated Mughal decline. |
| 4-16 Encomienda system | Spanish colonial labor system granting conquistadors the right to extract forced labor and tribute from indigenous peoples in exchange for Christianization; led to abuse and population decline. |
| 4-17 Primogeniture laws | Laws passing inheritance to the eldest son; ensured noble estates remained intact; reinforced European social hierarchy and influenced colonial inheritance practices. |
| 4-18 Indian Ocean Commercial Network | Ancient maritime trade system linking East Africa, Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia; incorporated into European trade after Portuguese arrival in the late 1400s. |
| 4-19 Trade post empire | Portuguese model of controlling trade by establishing fortified ports along coasts rather than conquering territory; dominated Indian Ocean trade in the early 16th century. |
| 4-20 Philippines (Spanish) | Spanish colony (~1565–1898); key transpacific trade hub linking Asia and the Americas via the Manila Galleon trade; converted largely to Catholicism. |
| 4-21 Manila | Capital of Spanish Philippines; center of Manila Galleon trade bringing Chinese silver and goods to the Americas; multicultural city connecting Asian and American trade networks. |
| 4-22 British East India Company | English joint-stock company (est. 1600) that dominated Indian Ocean trade and eventually governed India; forerunner of British imperialism in South Asia. |
| 4-23 Dutch East India Company (VOC) | Dutch joint-stock company (est. 1602); dominated Indian Ocean spice trade; controlled Indonesia (Dutch East Indies); most profitable company of the 17th century. |
| 4-24 'Silver drain' | Flow of American silver (via Manila Galleon) into China to pay for Chinese goods; fueled Ming Dynasty economy but eventually contributed to inflation and economic disruption. |
| 4-25 Piece of eight | Spanish silver coin minted from Potosí silver; became the world's first global currency; used in trade across Europe, Asia, and the Americas in the 16th–19th centuries. |
| 4-26 Potosí | Silver mining city in colonial Bolivia (~16th–17th CE); one of the world's largest cities at its peak; source of enormous Spanish wealth; worked by indigenous people via mit'a system. |
| 4-27 Fur trade | Trade in North American animal pelts between indigenous peoples and European colonists; drove European exploration into the interior; transformed indigenous economies and led to conflict. |
| 4-28 'Soft gold' | Term for furs in the North American fur trade; describes their enormous economic value; trade enriched European merchants and Native American middlemen. |
| 4-29 Transatlantic slave system | Forced migration of ~12 million Africans to the Americas (~1500–1900); fundamental to plantation economies; caused massive demographic loss in Africa. |
| 4-30 African diaspora | Dispersal of African peoples throughout the world, primarily via the transatlantic slave trade; African cultures, religions, and traditions survived and transformed in the Americas. |
| 4-31 Maroon societies | Communities of escaped enslaved Africans in the Americas who formed independent settlements; resisted colonial authority; examples include Jamaica's Maroons and Brazil's Palmares. |
| 4-32 Signaries | African rulers who participated in the transatlantic slave trade by capturing and selling enslaved people to European traders in exchange for guns, textiles, and goods. |
| 4-33 Benin | West African kingdom in modern Nigeria; known for bronze artwork; traded with Portuguese from ~1480 CE; participated in the slave trade before later resistance. |
| 4-34 Dahomey | West African kingdom in modern Benin; major slave-trading state that sold captives to European merchants in exchange for firearms; maintained an all-female warrior unit (Agojie). |
| 4-35 Atahualpa | Last Inca emperor; captured by Francisco Pizarro in 1532; offered enormous gold ransom but was executed; his capture effectively ended organized Inca resistance. |
| 4-36 Francisco Pizarro | Spanish conquistador (~1471–1541) who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru with a small force; used disease, deception, and indigenous alliances; founded Lima. |
| 4-37 Montezuma | Aztec emperor (~1466–1520) during Spanish conquest; initially welcomed Cortéz; died during Spanish siege of Tenochtitlán; symbol of the clash between Old and New Worlds. |
| 4-38 Mit'a system | Inca labor tribute system requiring subjects to work for the state a set number of days per year; Spanish adopted it to force indigenous labor in mines like Potosí. |
| 4-39 Joint-stock companies | Business entities (like the British/Dutch East India Companies) where investors pooled capital and shared profits/risks; revolutionized long-distance trade and colonialism. |
| **Unit 5: Revolutions** | Covers the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, Atlantic Revolutions, and Industrial Revolution (1750–1900), examining how new ideas about nature, governance, and economics transformed the world. |
| 5-1 Scientific Revolution | Intellectual transformation (~16th–17th CE) replacing religious/Aristotelian explanations of nature with empirical observation; produced heliocentrism, laws of motion, and the scientific method. |
| 5-2 Copernicus (1543) | Polish astronomer who proposed a heliocentric (sun-centered) model of the solar system; challenged Church doctrine and launched the Scientific Revolution. |
| 5-3 Galileo | Italian astronomer/physicist (1564–1642) who used the telescope to confirm heliocentrism; clashed with the Catholic Church; pioneered experimental physics. |
| 5-4 Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) | English physicist who formulated laws of gravity and motion; his "Principia Mathematica" synthesized the Scientific Revolution and influenced the Enlightenment. |
| 5-5 European Enlightenment | 18th-century intellectual movement applying reason to human affairs; challenged monarchy, church authority, and tradition; inspired democratic revolutions worldwide. |
| 5-6 Voltaire (1694–1778) | French Enlightenment writer; criticized religious intolerance, tyranny, and censorship; championed freedom of speech; influenced the French Revolution. |
| 5-7 Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794) | French Enlightenment philosopher; believed in human progress, gender equality, and abolition of slavery; died during the Reign of Terror. |
| 5-8 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) | Swiss-French philosopher; argued people are naturally good but corrupted by society; "social contract" theory influenced the French and American revolutions. |
| 5-9 Charles Darwin (1809–1882) | British naturalist who proposed evolution by natural selection in "On the Origin of Species" (1859); revolutionized biology and influenced social thought. |
| 5-10 Karl Marx (1818–1883) | German philosopher who argued capitalism exploits workers and history is driven by class struggle; proposed communism; inspired socialist and communist movements worldwide. |
| 5-11 Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) | Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis; argued behavior is driven by unconscious desires; challenged Enlightenment faith in reason. |
| 5-12 American Revolution (1776–1783) | Colonial revolt against British rule; established the United States; drew on Enlightenment ideas about natural rights; influenced subsequent revolutions globally. |
| 5-13 French Revolution (1789–1815) | Radical political revolution overthrowing the French monarchy; proclaimed liberty, equality, fraternity; led to the Reign of Terror and Napoleon's rise. |
| 5-14 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen | 1789 French Revolutionary document proclaiming civil rights and popular sovereignty; inspired by the Enlightenment; influenced global human rights discourse. |
| 5-15 Robespierre | French revolutionary leader (1758–1794) who led the Reign of Terror, executing thousands deemed enemies of the Revolution; symbol of revolutionary extremism; guillotined in 1794. |
| 5-16 Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1815) | French general turned emperor; spread revolutionary law codes across Europe; his Napoleonic Wars triggered nationalist movements; exiled after Waterloo (1815). |
| 5-17 Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) | Only successful slave revolution in history; enslaved Haitians led by Toussaint Louverture overthrew French rule; established the first Black republic. |
| 5-18 Latin American Revolutions | Series of independence movements (~1810–1825) against Spanish/Portuguese rule; inspired by Enlightenment and American/French revolutions; led by Creole elites like Bolívar. |
| 5-19 Hidalgo-Morelos Rebellion (1810–1811, Mexico) | Early Mexican independence movement led by priests Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos; mobilized indigenous and mestizo masses; eventually led to independence in 1821. |
| 5-20 Tupac Amaru (1780, Peru) | Failed indigenous rebellion against Spanish colonial rule in Peru; led by José Gabriel Condorcanqui; brutally suppressed; inspired later Latin American independence movements. |
| 5-21 Opium Wars (China) | British wars against China (1839–1842; 1856–1858) to force open China to opium trade; China's defeat showed its weakness; led to unequal treaties and imperialism. |
| 5-22 Great Jamaica Revolt (1831–1832) | Large-scale slave rebellion in Jamaica led by Samuel Sharpe; contributed to British Parliament passing the Slavery Abolition Act (1833). |
| 5-23 Abolitionist movement | Social movement to end the slave trade and slavery; gained momentum in the late 18th–19th century; led by figures like Wilberforce, Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman. |
| 5-24 Nationalism | Political ideology asserting that people sharing a common identity should govern themselves; drove 19th-century revolutions in Europe and 20th-century decolonization movements worldwide. |
| 5-25 Feminist movement | Social movement advocating for women's political, economic, and social equality; first wave focused on suffrage; emerged in the context of Enlightenment ideals. |
| 5-26 Elizabeth Cady Stanton | American feminist leader (1815–1902); co-organized the Seneca Falls Convention (1848); co-wrote the Declaration of Sentiments demanding women's rights including suffrage. |
| 5-27 Maternal feminism | Feminist ideology arguing women deserve rights because of their roles as mothers and moral guardians of society; used to justify women's involvement in public/political life. |
| 5-28 Steam engine | Invention (~1765 by James Watt) that converted steam power into mechanical work; powered factories, trains, and ships; central to the Industrial Revolution. |
| 5-29 British textile industry | First sector to industrialize in Britain; use of water frames and spinning jennies mechanized cloth production; drove urbanization and proletarianization. |
| 5-30 Middle class society | Social class of merchants, professionals, and factory owners that grew with industrialization; promoted values of hard work, education, and private property. |
| 5-31 Ideology of domesticity | 19th-century middle-class ideal that women belonged in the private sphere (home, family) while men worked in public; reinforced gender inequality in industrial societies. |
| 5-32 Laboring class | Industrial workers (proletariat) who sold their labor for wages; faced dangerous conditions, low pay, and long hours; the basis of Marxist theory and labor movements. |
| 5-33 Labour Party | British political party founded in 1900 to represent the interests of workers; grew out of trade union movement; later implemented the welfare state. |
| 5-34 Socialism in the United States | Labor and political movement advocating worker ownership of production; grew with industrialization; included figures like Eugene Debs; competed with capitalism. |
| 5-35 Progressives | American reform movement (~1890s–1920s) addressing industrialization's social harms; pushed for antitrust laws, women's suffrage, labor protections, and urban reform. |
| 5-36 Russian Revolution of 1905 | Uprising against Tsar Nicholas II after "Bloody Sunday"; forced creation of the Duma (parliament); precursor to the 1917 revolution that ended tsarist rule. |
| 5-37 Caudillos | Military strongmen who dominated Latin American politics after independence (~19th CE); ruled by personal power rather than institutions; reflected instability of post-colonial states. |
| 5-38 Latin American export boom | 19th-century expansion of Latin American raw material exports (coffee, sugar, beef, rubber) to industrializing nations; deepened economic dependency on foreign markets. |
| 5-39 Mexican Revolution | Armed revolution (1910–1920) against Porfirio Díaz's dictatorship; demanded land reform, workers' rights, and national sovereignty; produced a new constitution in 1917. |
| 5-40 Dependent development | Economic theory describing how developing nations remain economically subordinate to wealthy nations by exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods. |
| **Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization** | Examines how European industrialization fueled imperialism, colonialism, and resistance movements globally from 1750–1900, reshaping political and economic structures worldwide. |
| 6-1 Imperialism | Policy of extending a nation's power through colonization, military force, or economic dominance; driven by industrialization, Social Darwinism, and nationalism in the 19th century. |
| 6-2 Nationalism | Ideology inspiring both European imperialism and colonial resistance movements; unified European states and motivated anti-colonial independence struggles in the 20th century. |
| 6-3 Social Darwinism | Misapplication of Darwin's evolution to justify European imperialism; argued "superior" races had the right and duty to dominate "inferior" ones; pseudoscientific racism. |
| 6-4 'Scramble for Africa' (1875) | Rapid European colonization of Africa (~1881–1914); formalized at the Berlin Conference (1884–85); divided Africa among European powers with little regard for indigenous peoples. |
| 6-5 Indian "Sepoy" Rebellion (1857–1858) | Uprising of Indian soldiers (sepoys) against British East India Company rule; caused by cultural insensitivity; crushed by Britain, leading to direct Crown rule over India. |
| 6-6 Congo Free State | Personal colony of Belgium's King Leopold II (~1885–1908); rubber extraction enforced through extreme violence; millions died; exposed by international outcry as a humanitarian atrocity. |
| 6-7 Boer Wars | Conflicts between Britain and Dutch-descended Boers (Afrikaners) in South Africa (1880–1881; 1899–1902); Britain won but used concentration camps; shaped South African history. |
| 6-8 Cash crop production | Colonial agricultural practice forcing indigenous peoples to grow export crops (cotton, tobacco, rubber) for European markets instead of food; caused famines and economic dependency. |
| 6-9 Spheres of influence | Areas where a foreign power claimed exclusive trading rights and political influence without formal colonization; used in China and Latin America by European powers and the U.S. |
| 6-10 East India Company | British joint-stock company that governed India from the 1600s; became a colonial administrator; dissolved after the 1857 Sepoy Rebellion when the British Crown took direct control. |
| 6-11 Dutch East India Company | Dutch trading company that controlled the spice trade in Southeast Asia (~1602–1799); governed Indonesia; early example of corporate colonialism. |
| 6-12 Boxer Rebellion | Chinese nationalist uprising (1899–1901) against foreign influence and Christian missionaries; suppressed by an eight-nation military coalition; led to further concessions from China. |
| 6-13 "The Great Game" | 19th-century geopolitical rivalry between Britain and Russia for dominance over Central Asia and Afghanistan; reflects imperial competition outside formal colonization. |
| 6-14 Leopold II | Belgian king who personally owned the Congo Free State; used terror to extract rubber; death toll estimated at millions; symbol of extreme colonial brutality. |
| 6-15 Ghost Dance | Native American spiritual movement (~1890) predicting an end to white expansion and resurrection of indigenous peoples; led to the Wounded Knee Massacre by U.S. forces. |
| 6-16 Taiping Uprising (1850–1864) | Massive Chinese civil war led by Hong Xiuquan who claimed to be Jesus's brother; ~20–30 million died; exposed Qing Dynasty's weakness before Western powers. |
| 6-17 Opium Wars (1840–1842; 1856–1858) | British wars forcing China to allow opium imports and open to foreign trade; China's defeat led to unequal treaties and humiliation; key to understanding Chinese nationalism. |
| 6-18 Tupac Amaru II | Peruvian indigenous leader who led a major uprising against Spanish colonial rule in 1780; ultimately executed; symbolized Andean resistance to colonialism. |
| 6-19 Spanish-American War | 1898 conflict in which the U.S. defeated Spain; gained control of Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico; marked U.S. emergence as a global imperial power. |
| 6-20 'Self-strengthening' | Chinese reform movement (~1860s–1890s) attempting to modernize military and technology while preserving Confucian values; ultimately failed to prevent further foreign encroachment. |
| 6-21 Aboriginal people | Indigenous peoples of Australia; experienced dispossession, violence, and forced assimilation under British colonial rule; "White Australia" policies excluded them from full citizenship. |
| 6-22 Tanzimat – Ottoman Empire (1839–1859) | Ottoman reform program modernizing military, law, and administration along Western lines; aimed to strengthen empire against European imperialism. |
| 6-23 Young Ottomans | 19th-century Ottoman intellectual reformers who advocated a constitutional government blending Islamic principles with European liberalism; influenced by Enlightenment ideas. |
| 6-24 Sokoto Caliphate | West African Islamic state (~1804–1903) founded by Usman dan Fodio after a Fulani-led jihad; governed by sharia law; resisted British colonialism until conquest. |
| 6-25 Young Turks | Early 20th-century Ottoman reform movement that overthrew the sultan in 1908; promoted Turkish nationalism; led the empire into WWI; responsible for the Armenian Genocide. |
| 6-26 Tokugawa Japan | Japanese shogunate (~1603–1868) known for isolationist sakoku policy; stable but stagnant; ended when U.S. Commodore Perry forced trade in 1853; followed by Meiji Restoration. |
| 6-27 Xhosa Cattle Killing | Xhosa people of South Africa slaughtered their own cattle in 1856–57 following a prophecy that this would drive out British colonizers; resulted in mass starvation. |
| 6-28 Export economies | Economies dependent on exporting raw materials (minerals, crops) to industrialized nations; characteristic of colonized regions; produced wealth for colonizers but underdevelopment locally. |
| 6-29 Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) | Japan defeated Russia; first time a non-European power defeated a European power in modern times; inspired anti-colonial nationalist movements across Asia and Africa. |
| 6-30 Monocultures | Agricultural system focused on producing a single crop for export; depleted soils, created economic vulnerability, and caused famines; legacy of colonial cash crop economies. |
| 6-31 Treaty of Nanjing | 1842 treaty ending the First Opium War; forced China to open ports, cede Hong Kong to Britain, and pay reparations; beginning of the "century of humiliation." |
| 6-32 "Banana republics" | Term for Central American nations dominated by U.S. fruit companies (like United Fruit Company); economies based on monoculture banana exports; politically unstable and U.S.-controlled. |
| 6-33 Kangani system | Labor recruitment system in British colonial South and Southeast Asia; labor contractors (kanganis) recruited workers from India for plantations; a form of indentured labor. |
| 6-34 "White Australia" | Immigration policy (1901–1973) restricting non-European immigration to Australia; reflected racial nationalism and Social Darwinism; excluded Asian and Pacific Islander migrants. |
| **Unit 7: Global Conflict** | Examines WWI, the Russian Revolution, the Great Depression, fascism, WWII, and early Cold War dynamics from 1900–1950, focusing on causes and consequences of global conflict. |
| 7-1 World War I (1914–1918) | First global industrial war triggered by assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand; trench warfare; ~17 million dead; reshaped empires and global power structures. |
| 7-2 'Total war' | Warfare mobilizing entire society including civilians, industry, and economy; governments controlled all resources for war effort; first exemplified in WWI and fully realized in WWII. |
| 7-3 Treaty of Versailles (1918) | Post-WWI peace settlement blamed Germany for the war (War Guilt Clause); imposed reparations and territorial losses; humiliation fueled German resentment and WWII. |
| 7-4 Russian Revolution (1917) | Overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II followed by Bolshevik seizure of power; established the world's first communist state; inspired socialist movements globally. |
| 7-5 Lenin | Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924); led the Bolshevik Revolution; established the Soviet Union; developed Marxist-Leninism; implemented the New Economic Policy (NEP) to stabilize the economy. |
| 7-6 Stalin (1878–1953) | Soviet dictator who succeeded Lenin; industrialized the USSR through Five-Year Plans; collectivized agriculture; the Great Terror killed millions; allied with West in WWII. |
| 7-7 Collectivization of agriculture (1928–1933) | Stalin's forced merging of peasant farms into state-controlled collectives; resulted in grain seizures; caused the Holodomor famine killing millions in Ukraine. |
| 7-8 Kulaks | Relatively prosperous Russian peasants; targeted by Stalin during collectivization as class enemies; millions were killed, deported to gulags, or dispossessed. |
| 7-9 The Great Depression (1929–1939) | Global economic collapse following the 1929 U.S. stock market crash; mass unemployment worldwide; fueled the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan. |
| 7-10 Fascism | Far-right authoritarian nationalism characterized by dictatorial power, militarism, and suppression of opposition; rose in Italy (Mussolini), Germany (Hitler), and Spain (Franco). |
| 7-11 Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) | Italian fascist dictator; founded fascism in 1919; allied with Hitler (Axis Powers) in WWII; overthrown in 1943 and executed in 1945. |
| 7-12 Nazi Party | German National Socialist Workers' Party; led by Hitler; combined fascism with extreme antisemitism and racial nationalism; gained power in 1933 and launched WWII and the Holocaust. |
| 7-13 Hitler (1889–1945) | German Nazi dictator; rose to power amid economic depression; launched WWII with invasions of Europe; orchestrated the Holocaust; committed suicide as Soviet forces captured Berlin. |
| 7-14 Third Reich | Hitler's Nazi German state (1933–1945); sought to create a "thousand-year empire"; responsible for WWII and the Holocaust; destroyed by Allied forces in 1945. |
| 7-15 Japan – Revolutionary Right | Japanese ultranationalist military faction that dominated Japan in the 1930s; pushed aggressive expansion in Asia; attacked Pearl Harbor (1941) drawing U.S. into WWII. |
| 7-16 World War II (1939–1945) | Deadliest conflict in history (~70–85 million dead); Allied powers (UK, U.S., USSR) defeated Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan); ended with atomic bombings and the Holocaust's revelation. |
| 7-17 The Holocaust | Nazi Germany's systematic genocide of ~6 million Jews and ~5 million others (Roma, disabled, LGBTQ+); carried out through concentration camps and mass shootings; symbol of industrial genocide. |
| 7-18 Communism in Eastern Europe | Soviet-backed communist governments established in Eastern European nations after WWII; part of the Iron Curtain; brought these nations into the Soviet sphere of influence. |
| 7-19 Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) | Vietnamese communist revolutionary; led independence movement against France and the U.S.; founded North Vietnam; symbol of anti-colonial nationalism in Asia. |
| 7-20 Chinese Revolution (1949) | Communist victory in China's civil war; Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China; Nationalist Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan. |
| 7-21 Mao Zedong (1893–1976) | Chinese communist leader; led the Long March; founded the PRC (1949); launched the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution; his policies caused tens of millions of deaths. |
| 7-22 Guomindang – Nationalist Party of China | Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek; fought both Japan and the Communists; defeated by Mao in the civil war; retreated to Taiwan in 1949. |
| 7-23 Chiang Kai-shek | Leader of the Chinese Nationalist Party and the Republic of China; fought Communists and Japan; fled to Taiwan (1949) where he established a government. |
| **Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization** | Covers the Cold War, decolonization movements, and the reshaping of the global order from 1950 to the present, including superpower rivalry and the emergence of new nations. |
| 8-1 Non-Aligned Movement | Group of nations (many newly decolonized) that refused to align with either NATO or the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War; led by Nehru, Nasser, and Tito. |
| 8-2 Marshall Plan | U.S. economic aid program (~1948) to rebuild war-devastated Western Europe; prevented communist expansion; deepened Western European integration and U.S. influence. |
| 8-3 China: The Great Leap Forward | Mao's 1958–1962 economic and social campaign to rapidly industrialize China; collectivization and unrealistic quotas caused a famine killing ~30–55 million people. |
| 8-4 China: Cultural Revolution (mid 1960s) | Mao's 1966–1976 campaign to eliminate capitalist/traditional elements; Red Guards persecuted millions; destroyed cultural heritage; set back China economically. |
| 8-5 Cold War | Geopolitical tension between the U.S.-led capitalist West and the Soviet-led communist East (~1947–1991); fought through proxy wars, arms races, and ideological competition. |
| 8-6 NATO (1949) | North Atlantic Treaty Organization; military alliance of Western democracies led by the U.S.; formed to counter Soviet expansion in Europe; still exists today. |
| 8-7 Warsaw Pact (1955) | Soviet-led military alliance of communist Eastern European nations; counterpart to NATO; dissolved in 1991 with the end of the Cold War and Soviet collapse. |
| 8-8 Cuban Revolution (1959) | Fidel Castro's communist revolution overthrowing Batista's U.S.-backed dictatorship; brought Cuba into the Soviet orbit; caused the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962). |
| 8-9 Decolonization | Post-WWII process by which European colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean gained independence; driven by nationalist movements, WWII weakening of Europe, and the Cold War. |
| 8-10 Indian National Congress | Indian political party founded 1885; led the independence movement against British rule; Gandhi and Nehru were its key figures; governed India after independence (1947). |
| 8-11 Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) | Indian independence leader; used nonviolent civil disobedience (satyagraha) against British rule; key to India's independence; assassinated by a Hindu nationalist in 1948. |
| 8-12 Muslim League / Muhammad Ali Jinnah | Muslim League founded 1906; Jinnah led demands for a separate Muslim state; resulted in partition of British India into India and Pakistan (1947). |
| 8-13 Globalization of democracy | Post-Cold War spread of democratic governance worldwide; ~1990s wave of democratization following Soviet collapse; uneven and challenged by authoritarian resurgences. |
| 8-14 Mao Zedong | Leader of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976); implemented communist policies; launched Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution; transformed China through radical ideology. |
| 8-15 Deng Xiaoping | Chinese leader (~1978–1997) who initiated economic reforms ("socialism with Chinese characteristics"); opened China to foreign investment; dramatically grew China's economy. |
| 8-16 Mikhail Gorbachev | Last Soviet leader (r. 1985–1991); launched glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring); unintentionally caused the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. |
| 8-17 Israeli-Palestinian Conflict | Ongoing conflict over land in the Middle East between Israelis and Palestinians; rooted in the creation of Israel (1948) and competing nationalist claims; major global flashpoint. |
| 8-18 Iranian Revolution (1979) | Islamic revolution overthrew the U.S.-backed Shah of Iran; established an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini; transformed Middle Eastern geopolitics. |
| 8-19 Rwandan Civil War (1990–1994) | Civil war between Hutu-dominated government and the Tutsi-led RPF in Rwanda; created conditions for the 1994 genocide; international community failed to intervene. |
| 8-20 Rwandan Genocide (1994) | Systematic mass killing of ~800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus in 100 days; one of the fastest genocides in history; international community failed to intervene. |
| 8-21 Bosnian-Serbian War (1992–1995) | Conflict following Yugoslavia's breakup; Bosnian Serbs (backed by Serbia) fought Bosnian Muslims and Croats; ended with the Dayton Agreement. |
| 8-22 Bosnian Genocide (1995) | Massacre of ~8,000 Bosniak Muslim men and boys at Srebrenica by Bosnian Serb forces; recognized as genocide by the UN; NATO intervention ended the war. |
| 8-23 Syrian Civil War (2011) | Ongoing conflict beginning with the Arab Spring; Assad's government used force against protesters; escalated into multi-sided war involving regional and global powers. |
| 8-24 Arab Spring (2011) | Wave of pro-democracy protests across the Arab world; toppled governments in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen; inspired by social media; mostly resulted in instability. |
| 8-25 Russian annexation of Crimea (2014) | Russia seized the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine; violated international law; heightened Cold War-era tensions between Russia and the West. |
| 8-26 Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022) | Full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning February 2022; largest European military conflict since WWII; caused global energy crisis and refugee emergency. |
| 8-27 Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) | 13-day standoff between the U.S. and USSR over Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba; closest the Cold War came to nuclear war; resolved diplomatically. |
| 8-28 Yalta Conference | 1945 meeting of Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to plan post-WWII order; divided Europe into Western and Soviet spheres of influence; shaped the Cold War. |
| 8-29 Military industrial complex | Term coined by Eisenhower for the alliance between the U.S. military, defense industries, and Congress; warned that it could distort democratic priorities. |
| 8-30 Warsaw Pact | Soviet-led military alliance of Eastern European communist states (1955–1991); formed in response to West Germany joining NATO; dissolved with the Soviet collapse. |
| 8-31 Gamal Abdel Nasser | Egyptian president (r. 1956–1970); nationalized the Suez Canal; symbol of Arab nationalism; central figure in the Non-Aligned Movement. |
| 8-32 Suez Crisis | 1956 conflict when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal; Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt; U.S. and USSR pressured withdrawal; marked decline of European imperial power. |
| Unit 9: Globalization** | Examines accelerating global integration from 1900 to the present, including economic globalization, technological change, environmental challenges, and social movements. |
| 9-1 Genetic engineering | Manipulation of DNA to alter organisms' traits; revolutionized medicine and agriculture; raised ethical debates; central to modern biotechnology. |
| 9-2 Antibiotic | Drugs that kill bacterial infections; discovered with penicillin (1928); transformed medicine and increased global life expectancy; overuse now threatens antibiotic resistance. |
| 9-3 Economic globalization | Increasing interconnection of world economies through trade, investment, and technology; accelerated after the Cold War; created wealth but also inequality. |
| 9-4 Asian Tigers | South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong; rapidly industrialized in the late 20th century through export-led growth, education, and government investment. |
| 9-5 Bretton Woods system | Post-WWII international monetary system (1944) establishing the U.S. dollar as the global reserve currency; created the IMF and World Bank; collapsed in 1971. |
| 9-6 Transnational corporations | Companies operating in multiple countries; central to economic globalization; often criticized for exploiting cheap labor and environmental standards in developing nations. |
| 9-7 World Trade Organization (WTO) | International organization (est. 1995) governing global trade rules; promotes free trade; succeeded GATT; criticized for favoring wealthy nations. |
| 9-8 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) | 1994 free trade agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico; eliminated most tariffs; increased trade but controversially displaced workers. |
| 9-9 Fertility rates | Average number of children per woman; declined globally with industrialization, education, and urbanization; aging populations in wealthy nations vs. high birth rates in developing ones. |
| 9-10 Export-processing zone (EPZ) | Special economic zones offering tax breaks and relaxed labor regulations to attract foreign manufacturers; common in Asia and Latin America; criticized for worker exploitation. |
| 9-11 Service sector | Economic sector providing services (finance, healthcare, education, retail) rather than goods; dominates post-industrial economies; largest employment sector in developed nations. |
| 9-12 Informal economy | Economic activity outside government regulation and taxation; includes street vending, domestic work, and day labor; dominant in developing nations; often exploits marginalized workers. |
| 9-13 One-child family policy (China) | Chinese government policy (1980–2015) limiting most families to one child; dramatically reduced population growth; created gender imbalance due to preference for male children. |
| 9-14 Malaria | Tropical parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes; kills hundreds of thousands annually; disproportionately affects sub-Saharan Africa; major obstacle to development. |
| 9-15 Second-wave feminism | Feminist movement (~1960s–1980s) expanding beyond suffrage to address reproductive rights, workplace equality, domestic violence, and sexuality; transformed laws and culture globally. |
| 9-16 HIV/AIDS | Global pandemic caused by the HIV virus; identified in 1981; killed ~40 million people; disproportionately affected sub-Saharan Africa; transformed global health policy. |
| 9-17 Antiviral drugs | Medications that treat viral infections (HIV, influenza, hepatitis); transformed HIV/AIDS from a death sentence to a manageable condition; example of medical globalization. |
| 9-18 Green Revolution | Mid-20th-century agricultural program introducing high-yield crop varieties, fertilizers, and irrigation to developing nations; dramatically increased food production but created environmental concerns. |
| 9-19 Ebola | Deadly hemorrhagic viral disease in sub-Saharan Africa; outbreaks (notably 2014–2016 in West Africa) highlighted global health infrastructure weaknesses; spread via bodily fluids. |
| 9-20 Alzheimer's Disease | Progressive neurological disorder causing memory loss; increasingly prevalent in aging populations; represents challenges of aging demographics in developed and developing nations. |
| 9-21 Megacities | Cities with populations over 10 million; grew rapidly with urbanization; concentrated in Asia, Africa, and Latin America; face challenges of inequality, pollution, and infrastructure. |
| 9-22 Influenza pandemic | Global flu outbreaks (notably 1918 Spanish Flu, killing ~50 million); demonstrate vulnerability of interconnected world to disease; precursor to COVID-19 pandemic awareness. |
| 9-23 Deforestation | Large-scale clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, and development; destroys biodiversity, releases carbon, and contributes to climate change; accelerated by global demand. |
| 9-24 Desertification | Degradation of fertile land into desert due to overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change; threatens food security especially in sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia. |
| 9-25 Kyoto Protocols | 1997 international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; binding on developed nations; the U.S. did not ratify; replaced by the Paris Climate Agreement (2015). |
| 9-26 Ronald Reagan | U.S. president (1981–1989); championed free-market economics (Reaganomics); cut taxes and regulation; supported anti-communist movements globally; Cold War escalation then détente. |
| 9-27 Margaret Thatcher | British Prime Minister (1979–1990); implemented free-market neoliberal reforms (Thatcherism); privatized state industries; reduced union power; aligned with Reagan's Cold War policies. |
| 9-28 Anthropocene era | Proposed geological epoch defined by significant human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems; includes climate change, mass extinction, and environmental transformation. |
| 9-29 Economic liberalization | Shift toward free markets by reducing government intervention, privatizing state enterprises, and opening economies to foreign trade; promoted by IMF and World Bank globally. |
| 9-30 Deng Xiaoping | Chinese leader who implemented economic reforms after Mao; opened China to foreign investment and market economics while maintaining Communist Party political control. |
| 9-31 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) | Regional organization (est. 1967) promoting political and economic cooperation among Southeast Asian nations; grown to 10 members; model of regional integration. |
| 9-32 Paris Climate Agreement | 2015 international accord to limit global warming to below 2°C by reducing greenhouse gas emissions; signed by nearly all nations; the U.S. briefly withdrew under Trump. |
| 9-33 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade | Post-WWII international agreement (1947) reducing trade |
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