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PHIL EXAM 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is morality? | Standards about what is right/wrong or good/evil held by individuals or groups. |
| What is ethics? | The philosophical study of morality and what is morally right or wrong. |
| What does it mean to engage in ethics? | Evaluating moral standards by examining the reasons for and against them. |
| How do we develop reasonable moral standards? | By weighing arguments for and against them and choosing the strongest reasons. |
| What is ethical relativism? | The view that moral right and wrong depend on one’s culture or society. both moral beliefs and moral truths depend on culture. |
| What question does ethics ask? | What people ought to do or believe. |
| How do social sciences differ from ethics? | Social sciences describe what people do; ethics evaluates what they ought to do. |
| What is moral diversity? | The existence of different moral beliefs across cultures. |
| What is descriptive relativism? | The claim that different cultures have different moral beliefs. |
| What is enculturation? | Learning and internalizing the moral standards of one’s culture. |
| What does ethical relativism say about moral standards? | Only a society’s standards exist—no universal morality. |
| Why can’t ethical relativism criticize cultures? | Because it uses that same culture’s standards as the only basis for judgment. |
| What does ethical relativism imply about moral mistakes? | No culture can be wrong—only different. |
| What is the “no disagreement” problem? | If relativism is true, cultures don’t truly disagree—they just express different norms. |
| What is one argument against relativism based on shared values? | Some moral rules (like not killing) are necessary for all societies. |
| What is the tolerance argument? | Relativism promotes tolerance, but tolerance itself may require universal standards. |
| How does reason challenge relativism? | People can critically evaluate and change their moral beliefs. |
| What is consequentialism? | Judging actions based on their consequences (good vs. bad outcomes). |
| What are nonmoral goods and bads? | Goods = pleasure/happiness; bads = pain/suffering. |
| What are instrumental goods? | Things good because they lead to other good things. |
| What are intrinsic goods? | Things good in themselves. |
| What is hedonism? | The view that only pleasure is intrinsically good and pain is intrinsically bad. |
| What is ethical egoism? | Acting morally means promoting your own long-term self-interest. |
| What is psychological egoism? | The claim that people always act out of self-interest. |
| Key difference between ethical and psychological egoism? | Ethical = what we ought to do; psychological = what we actually do. |
| What is the moral point of view? | An impartial perspective that treats everyone’s interests equally. |
| Why is ethical egoism criticized? | It is partial (self-focused) and can lead to contradictions. |
| What is utilitarianism? | The view that the right action produces the greatest good for the greatest number. |
| Who are key utilitarian thinkers? | Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. |
| What is Bentham’s main idea? | Measure pleasure and pain to determine right and wrong. |
| What is the felicific calculus? | A method of calculating total pleasure minus pain. |
| What is a criticism of Bentham? | Pleasure and pain are hard to measure objectively. |
| What did Mill add to utilitarianism? | The quality of pleasure matters, not just quantity. |
| What are higher vs. lower pleasures? | Higher = intellectual; lower = physical pleasures |
| What is act utilitarianism? | Choose the action that produces the most happiness in that situation. |
| What is rule utilitarianism? | Follow rules that produce the greatest happiness if generally followed. |
| Problem with act utilitarianism? | Can justify harmful actions if they maximize happiness. |
| Problem with rule utilitarianism? | Hard to predict consequences and rules may need exceptions. |
| General problem with utilitarianism? | Difficult to predict and measure all consequences. |
| What is the main challenge in choosing an ethical theory? | Different theories focus on different aspects of a situation and may lead to different conclusions. |
| What did John Dewey argue about ethical theories? | They are tools to help us think about moral problems, not automatic decision-makers. |
| According to Dewey, what is the purpose of studying ethical theories? | To gain frameworks that help identify what is morally important. |
| Who is ultimately responsible for moral decisions? | Each individual must make their own final moral decisions. |
| What is the benefit of using multiple ethical theories? | They provide different perspectives and insights into complex moral situations. |
| What is the first step in moral reasoning? | Recognize that the situation involves an ethical issue. |
| What is the second step in moral reasoning? | Gather all relevant facts. |
| What is the third step in moral reasoning? | Identify possible actions. |
| What is the fourth step in moral reasoning? | Evaluate each option ethically. |
| What is the final step in moral reasoning? | Make a decision. |
| What question does utilitarianism ask? | Which action produces the most benefit or least harm for everyone? |
| What questions does Kantian ethics ask? | Does the action treat people as ends and can it be universalized? |
| What question does natural law theory ask? | Does the action respect basic human goods like life and family? |
| What questions does virtue ethics ask? | Does the action express or develop good character? |
| What question does ethics of care ask? | Does the action nurture relationships and care for others? |
| What is consistency in moral reasoning? | Applying the same moral judgment to similar situations. |
| What does moral consistency require? | Accepting the same judgments for ourselves as we apply to others. |
| What is moral disengagement? | Mental strategies used to justify immoral behavior. |
| Who identified moral disengagement? | Albert Bandura |
| What is moral rationalization? | Justifying wrongdoing as serving a good purpose. |
| What is euphemistic labeling? | Using mild language to make wrongdoing seem acceptable. |
| What is advantageous comparison? | Making wrongdoing seem minor compared to worse actions. |
| What is displacement of responsibility? | Blaming authority figures for one’s actions. |
| What is diffusion of responsibility? | Blaming a group instead of oneself. |
| What is dehumanization? | Viewing victims as less than human. |
| What is blaming the victim? | Claiming the victim deserved the harm. |
| What is denying the harm? | Minimizing or ignoring the damage done. |
| What is the central ethical question about abortion? | When, if ever, is abortion morally permissible? |
| What is the key issue in the abortion debate? | Whether a fetus is a person. |
| What did Mary Anne Warren argue? | Personhood depends on traits like consciousness, reasoning, and self-awareness. |
| What is a criticism of Warren’s view? | Some recognized persons lack those traits but are still considered persons. |
| What was R. M. Hare’s view on abortion? | A more conservative Kantian stance—limited acceptance, not for convenience. |
| What is the utilitarian view on abortion? | It may be justified if it produces better consequences. |
| What did Jane English argue? | Late abortion may reduce respect for persons and be morally wrong. |
| What did Don Marquis argue? | Abortion is wrong because it deprives a fetus of a valuable future. |
| What is a criticism of Marquis’s argument? | Fetuses do not have planned or self-aware futures |
| What is the virtue ethics view on abortion? | It may reflect vices like irresponsibility, but not always. |
| What is passive euthanasia? | Letting a person die by withholding treatment. |
| What is active euthanasia? | Directly causing death (e.g., lethal injection). |
| What does natural law say about euthanasia? | Life is a basic good; intentionally ending it is wrong. |
| What is the doctrine of double effect? | Actions with both good and bad effects may be permissible under certain conditions. |
| Who developed the doctrine of double effect? | Thomas Aquinas |
| What are the conditions of double effect? | Intend good, bad effect unavoidable, and good outweighs bad. |
| What is the utilitarian view on euthanasia? | It can be justified if it reduces suffering and benefits everyone. |
| What did James Rachels argue? | Active euthanasia can be morally acceptable in some cases. |
| What is involuntary euthanasia? | Euthanasia without the patient’s consent. |
| What is the Kantian concern with euthanasia? | It must respect autonomy and consent. |
| What is a utilitarian concern about euthanasia? | Possible harmful long-term consequences (e.g., slippery slope). |
| What is a strength of Kantian ethics in euthanasia debates? | It avoids relying on uncertain predictions of consequences. |
| What is a nonconsequentialist theory? | A theory that says morality depends on factors other than consequences. |
| What are the two types of nonconsequentialist theories? | Those based on a single rule and those based on multiple rules. |
| What is natural law ethics? | The view that humans should live according to their natural tendencies and human nature. |
| What did the Stoics believe about natural law? | That a rational order governs the universe and can be discovered by human reason. |
| What did Epictetus teach about morality? | We should live according to our natural tendencies and focus only on what we can control. |
| According to Epictetus, what leads to happiness? | Living according to nature and controlling how we think about things. |
| Who is the main philosopher of natural law theory? | Thomas Aquinas |
| What did Aquinas believe about natural law? | God created natural laws that humans can discover through reason. |
| What are the basic human goods according to Aquinas? | Life, family, knowledge, and an orderly society. |
| When is an action morally right in natural law theory? | When it promotes basic human goods. |
| Why is suicide wrong in natural law theory? | Because it destroys the fundamental good of human life. |
| What is the principle of double effect? | Actions with both goodHelp them maintain their ability to choose freely. and bad effects may be allowed if conditions are met. |
| What are the conditions of double effect? | Intend good, bad effect unavoidable, and good outweighs bad. |
| What is a major problem with natural law? | Conflicts between basic goods. |
| Why are natural inclinations questioned? | People can desire harmful or immoral things. |
| What ambiguity exists in natural law? | It is unclear what counts as fundamental goods. |
| What did John Finnis propose? | Seven basic goods including life, knowledge, play, friendship, and religion. |
| What is divine command theory? | The view that morality is based on God’s commands. |
| Where are God’s commands found (according to this theory)? | In scripture or human nature. |
| What is the key idea of divine command theory? | Actions are right because God commands them. |
| What is the Euthyphro problem? | Are actions right because God commands them, or does God command them because they are right? |
| What is a problem with sacred texts? | Different religions have conflicting scriptures. |
| Who developed Kantian ethics? | Immanuel Kant |
| What is autonomy (Kant)? | The ability to choose for oneself using reason. |
| What is heteronomy? | Letting external forces determine your actions. |
| What is a “good will”? | Acting because something is morally right. |
| What is the categorical imperative? | Act only on rules you would want everyone to follow. |
| What is a maxim? | The reason behind an action. |
| What makes an action morally right for Kant? | If it can be universalized. |
| What is Kant’s second principle? | Treat people as ends, never merely as means. |
| What is human dignity in Kant’s view? | Humans have intrinsic value beyond price. |
| Why is manipulation wrong in Kantian ethics? | It violates autonomy and consent. |
| What duty do we have toward people in need? | Help them maintain their ability to choose freely. |
| What is a major problem with Kant’s theory? | Duties can conflict (e.g., lying vs saving a life). |
| What criticism involves lying? | Kant says lying is always wrong, even in extreme cases. |
| What is the focus of Buddhist ethics? | Reducing suffering through wisdom. |
| What is karma? | Intentional actions that shape future outcomes. |
| What is the First Noble Truth? | Life involves suffering. |
| What causes suffering (Buddhism)? | Craving and attachment. |
| How can suffering be eliminated? | By eliminating craving. |
| What is the Eightfold Path? | A guide to eliminate suffering (right understanding, action, etc.). |
| What is the first precept? | Do not kill. |
| What is the second precept? | Do not steal. |
| What is the third precept? | Avoid immoral sexual behavior. |
| What is the fourth precept? | Do not lie. |
| What is the fifth precept? | Avoid intoxicants. |
| What is virtue ethics? | Focuses on becoming a good person rather than just performing good actions. |
| What does virtue ethics emphasize? | Character and moral development. |
| Who is the main philosopher of virtue ethics? | Aristotle |
| What is a virtue (Aristotle)? | A habit of responding to situations in the right way. |
| What is the ultimate goal of life (Aristotle)? | Happiness. |
| How do we achieve happiness? | By living according to reason. |
| What is the “mean”? | The balance between excess and deficiency. |
| Example of the mean (fear)? | Courage lies between recklessness and cowardice. |
| How are virtues developed? | Through practice and habit. |
| How do we judge actions in virtue ethics? | By the character traits they express and develop. |
| What is a criticism of virtue ethics? | It cannot always determine clear right/wrong answers. |
| What does Janet Smith argue about adultery? | It expresses and develops vices like dishonesty and selfishness. |
| What is philia? | Friendship-based love. |
| What is eros? | Passionate, romantic love. |
| What is agape? | Selfless, unconditional love. |
| What is the ethics of care? | Focuses on relationships and caring for others. |
| Who developed ethics of care theory? | Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings |
| What did Gilligan argue? | Women often focus on care and relationships in moral reasoning. |
| What does Noddings emphasize? | The importance of caring relationships and responding to others’ needs. |
| What is a limitation of ethics of care? | It may not address broader moral issues beyond close relationships. |
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