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4 Neurobiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Motor system contraols all ___________ movement | skeletal muscle |
| What are some of the multiple levels of control of spinal cord control of movement | *Simple reflexes *Slightly, more complex repetitive movements like walking *Planning & execution of voluntary movements *Basal ganglia&cerebellum modulate coordination, motor learning, & balance |
| Alpha motor neurons=__________ motor neurons | lower |
| Put these in order *ventral root *ventral horn *Cell bodies * skeletal muscle | Cell bodies-->ventral horn-->ventral root-->skeletal muscle |
| One motor neuron that can innervate multiple fibers w/in one muslce and can branch to make many synaptic contacts is called a _______________ | lower motor neuron |
| What is a lower motor neuron/what does it do? | efferent/output can innervate multiple fibers w/in once muscle and can branch to make many synaptic contacts |
| What is a motor unit vs motor pool? | motor unit=motor neuron & fibers it innervates Motor pool=bigger picture; group of motor neurons that innervate all the fibers of one muscle |
| Is motor unit or motor pool consist of more motor neurons | Motor unit=one motor neuron motor pool=all the motor neurons that innervate the fibers of one muscle |
| _________________ is a motor neuron and the fibers it innervates | Motor unit *Take turns firing, spread throughout muscle to spread contraction |
| __________ is a group of motor neurons that innervate all the fibers of one muscle | Motor pool bigger picture |
| motor units and pools are (upper/lower) motor neurons aka aplha motor neurons | lowre |
| _________ vary in size and fucntion depending on what movement requires. | motor units |
| Small motor units include a ____________________ innervating a few muscle fibers. | single motor neuron -->are good for control and precise movements |
| (small/large) motor units are good for fine motor contraol and preise movements like those in the eyes/fingers | Small -Includes a single motor neuron innnervating a few muscle fibers |
| Large motor units innervate ______________- | many muscle fibers. They generate greater, more powerful force |
| (large/small) motor units are good for generating greater and more powerful force like those in gross movements, legs, and back | Large |
| What is the size principle? | 1st smaller motor units are recruited, followed by larger motor units as force demands increase |
| The __________________ is one of the largest and most well-studied synapse | neuromuscular jxn |
| What nt does the NMJ use -wgat are it's channels? receptors? -What breaks it down? | ACh -Ligant-gated, non-selective cation channels: nicotinic receptors -AChE |
| ____________ ACh receptors allow an influx of ____ ions that depolarize the cell and lead to v-g channels to open, and an AP in the muscle fiber that leads to contraction | Nicotinic AChR Na+ ions influx |
| T/F: A healthy neuron AP leads to muscle AP, which leads to muscle contraction | T |
| Definition of flexin | Decrease angle <180 degrees |
| Define extension | Increase angle towards 180 |
| How are alpha (lower) motor neurons topographically organized? arms and legs are __________ trunk is located _________- | arms and legs are more lateral trunk is more medial *know prox v distal, ext v flexors position in ventral horn |
| Proprioception defintion | kinesthetic sense Knowing where body is in space -important for spinal reflexes |
| Prioprioception relies on presence of _____________ that monitor muscle fiber stretch | muscle spindles (sensory reeptors) (ruffini corpuscle) |
| Prioprioception info is relayed to the nervous system via | Group 1 sensory axons, which are large myelinated fibers important for spinal reflexes |
| Is proprioception important for spinal reflexes? | ya |
| What are group 1 sensory axons? | Large, myelinated fibers that relay prioprioceptive info to nervous system |
| Put these in order from fastest to slowest: *A delta fibers AB fibers Group 1 C fibers | Group 1 (fastest: thick, myelinated: for proprioception) AB (touch; thick, less myelinated) A delta fibers (Pain, temp. Small, but myelinated) C fibers (small, unmyelinated) Pain, temp, itch, chemoreceptors ( |
| Name the following axon type with it's senstion (they're listed fastest to slowest) Group 1 AB A-Delta C fibers | Group 1: proprioception AB: Touch A-Delta: Pain; temp C fibers: Pain, temp, itch, chemoreceptors |
| E.g. of stretch (myotatic) reflex | knee jerk |
| WHat is a stretch (myotatic) refex | Occurs in reponse to activation of uscle spindles e.g. knee reflex takes place completely in spinal cord w/no input from brain |
| T or F: stretch/myotatic reflex takes place completely in the spinal cord with no input from the brain | T |
| monosynaptic means | one synapse |
| Sensory neurons are... | psuedounipolar |
| Sensory neurons also can synapse on __________ interneurons in the spinal cord. e.g of this w/patellar reflex | inhibitiory (Cl- in cell; IPSP) e.g. synapse on alpha motor neurons innervating hamstring (antagonistic flexor) so the ham relaxes, so the quads can contract more easily |
| The response to the stretch reflex is ___________ and the response to the withdraw reflex is ________ | stretch=extension withdraw=flexion |
| The __________ is a similar process to the stretch reflex, except flex. E.g. step on ouchie | withdraw |
| The withdraw (flexor) reflex starts with nociceptors (pain) and is ________synaptic | poly A-delta fibers, synapse on two interneurons: one is to RELAX the extensor and other is to CONSTRICT the flexor |
| Int he stretch/myotatic reflex, the extensor will __________ and the flexor will _______- | extensor contract flexor relax |
| What is the crossed-extensor reflex and when does it occur? | It's when u step on something sharp and left that leg. It's when the other leg stabilzes/supports/stops you from falling Occurs at the SAME time as withdraw reflex |
| The crossed-extensor reflex occurs at the same time as what other reflex? | The WIthdraw reflex e.g. step on something sharp-->withdraw ispilateral leg to stimulus, stablilze the contralateral one |
| When you step on something sharp, on the leg ISPITLATERAL to the stimulus the extensor will ____, flexor will ___ (this is called the ___ reflex) on the CONTRALATERAL leg extensor will____, flexor will ____ (this is the _____ reflex) | isp: extensor relax, flexor constrict (withdraw) contra: extensor constrict, flexor relax (Cross-extensor) |
| What cells and motor neurons are involved in the withdraw reflex? | nociceptor (pain) receptor cells alpha motor neurons (for flexor and extensor. AKA LMN) Interneurons (excitatory and inhibitory) |
| What is locomotion? | coordinated extensor & flexor muscle activity allowing smooth locomotion without falling -controlled at the SC level by central pathway regulatorys SC has circuitry that moves arm/leg in opposite patterns |
| __________ is an example of a basic, rythmic movement that reqires coordination of several muscle groups | locomotion |
| ________ requires coordinated extensor and flexor muscle activity to not fall | locomotion |
| locomotion is controlled at the level of ___________ by circuits celled __________ | the spinal cord Central pathway regulators |
| arms and legs move in the (same/opposite) patterns during locomotion | opposite |
| When the right extensor contracts, the ispilateral leg is (straight/bent) and the ______ is also contracting | bent left flexor also contracts on the standing leg |
| The right flexor contracts when the leg is (straight/bent) while walking, the ______ is also contracted at this time, meaning hte ___&___ will be relaxed | Straight left extensor (which is bent) Right extensor and left flexor will be relaxed at this time |
| If you put ur hands on the contracting muscles when you walk, they will always be on the (outside/inside) of ur legs | outside |
| Spinal circuitry controls the spinal cord system on multiple levels. Neurons have ______ properties w/(continuous/saltatory) cycles of depolarization and repolarization | pacemaker properties neurons have continuous depolar/repolay |
| Locomotion happens In (single/multi-cell) circuits and involved a collection of excitatory and inhibitory interneurons that result in ____________ inhibition of (ispilateral/contralateral) muscles | mutli-cell circuits reciprocal inhibition contralateral |
| in locomotion, excit/inhibitory interneurons cycle b/t depolar/repolar. Result in reciprocal inhibition of contralateral muscles and ____________ inhibition of ________________, antagonistic muscles | reciprocal inhibition of ispilateral antagonistic muscles |
| Locomotion is controlled at the level of the ___________________. Is there input from the brainstem and sensory neurons? | Spinal cord Yes, brainstema dn sensory neurons have an effect on modulating the pattern of SC neuronal activity. e.g. if you need to go slower/faster to avoid danger |
| WHat are 3 short steps when it comes to planning movement? | -Assess surrounding environment and body's location in space -Determine what action is appropriate -INitiating action |
| Sensory info (visual and somatosensory) are processed in the _____________, which is gonna sense v_______________, t_____________, an p_______________ info | Posterior parietal lobe visual, tactile, and proprioceptive information integration |
| What is the function of the posterior partial lobe? Where is it located? | Processes sensory information like visual, tactile, and proprioception. It's being the primary somatosensory cortex and anterior to the primary visual cortex/occipital lobe |
| After the posterior parietal lobe processes sensotry information, where does it send signals? | The prefrontal cortex and premotor regions |
| fxn of prefrontal cortex location | higher level cognitive fxns like planning, crticial thinking, and understanding the consequences of behaviors. Gets info from posterior parietal lobe Located in anterior frontal lobe |
| Premotor area fxn location | Plan and organize movement and make decisions about situational actions located anterior to preentral gyrus/primary motor cortex |
| Sensory info is integrated by the _______________________ and comes from _______________- and _____________- | posterior parietal cortex info comes from posterior parietal cortex and the primary visual cortex |
| Info-->primary visual cortex and somatosensory cortex-->_____________--> premotor area & ________--->primary motor cortex | posterior parietal cortex frontal lobe |
| What is the role of the premotor area Also where is it? | It's anterior to the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe (receives info from posterior parietal lobe/prefrontal cortex It sends some axons directly to LMNs in the SC Important for planning movement |
| The premotor area is important for planning movement and send some axons directly to _____ in the spinal cord | LMN The premotor cortex knows what you're doing before you know. |
| T or F: the premotor cortex and prefrontal cortex lights up when you actually do an activity and imagine doing and activity | True! |
| T or F: the primary motor cortex lights up when you actually do an activity and imagine doing and activity | False! The primary motor cortex only lights up when initiating an actual motor movement. When you imagine doing an activty, it does not light up. However, while imagining doing an activity, your frontal lobe and premotor cortex will light up |
| What were the results of the Premotor cortex of the monkey experiment (Weinrich & Wise, 1982)? Had light that lit up before the button lit up for the monkey to press | They measured brain activity Found that neurons in the premotor cortex became active w/the 1st light trigger WELL BEFORE ANY MOVEMENT done by the monkey |
| Roland 1980 - ppl trained to move fingers in a certain pattern & measured cerebral blood flow. When they did it vs when they just thought about it. What were the results? | Imagine=premotor regions of the brain and parts of the prefrontal cortex were activated Moving fingers=prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and primary motor cortex was activated. |
| When is the premotor cortex active? | Before and during movement Has important role in planning of movement |
| T or F: the posterior parietal cortex, prefrontal & premotor regions communicate w/basal ganglia to contruct movement | T |
| What is the basal ganglia? WHat are its components? (4) | Groups of subcortical nuclei: - Globus palladis - Striatum (caudate nucleus & putamen) -substantia nigra -Subthalamic nucelus |
| What 2 structures does the stiatum consist of? | Caudate nucleus and putamen |
| info for cortex-->________-->internal processing-->__________-->thalamus-->cortex | striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) pallidum (globuc palladis) |
| The basal ganglia is primarily assocaited with _______ | motor control issues lead to parkinsons disease (less) and huntingtons (more) |
| For voluntary motor behavior, the BG is involved in ____________ or suppression. | initiation |
| BG does regulation of movement by modulating the ___________ and ____________ | thalamus and cortex |
| T or F: The basal ganglia communicates w/non-motor regions of the cortex | T |
| Does the BG play any role in emotional and congitive processing? | ya |
| What are some roles of the BG | Primarily motor control - for voluntary motor=initiation and supression - Regulates movement via modulating/controling influence on thalamus and cortex - Communicates w/non-motor regions of the cortex - Role in emotional & cognitive processing |
| How does most info enter the BG? | Through the striatum |
| WHat is glumatergic input? | An EPSP, ionotropic; delivered by glutamate to the striatum From the cortex |
| What is dopaminergic input? | Can be ISPS (D2) or EPSP (D1 receptor); comes from the substantia nigra to the striatum. Metabotropic |
| Dopaminergic input ISPS or EPSP? how to know? where does it come from, where does it go? | It depends D1 receptors=excitatory D2 receptors=inhibitory Comes from substantia nigra to the striatum in the BG |
| Where does glumatergic come from/go? | EPSP ionotropic Comes from SUbstantia nigra and has projections to the striatum (caudate and putamen) |
| Glumatergic input is _____tropic and comes from the _________ Dopamenergic input is _________tropic and comes from the ___________ They both project into the striatum of the BG, which consists of ____ and __________ | Glut=ionotropic, cortex DA=metabotropic, substantia nigra Striatum=putamen and caudate nucleus |
| What happens in parkinsons disease? | DA neurons in the substantia nigra degenerate and no longer send appropriate inputs to the striatum (putamen & caudate nucelus) |
| the cortex and SN send input to the BG via the _______________. The ___________ is a part of the BG that does what? | Striatum (putamen, caudate nucleus) GLobus pallidus=output |
| ___________________ is part of the BG that sends GABAergic projections to the thalamus, allowing tonic, constant firing rate & allows BG to increase/decrease output situationally | Globus pallidus |
| FXN globus pallidus | Part of BG, sends output, sends inhibiotry GABAergic projections to thalamus for tonic, constant firing rate, allow BG to increase/decrease output situationally After this, the thalamus projects back to the cortex (primary moter area) |
| sensory info-->___________ internal segment--> GABAergic=_________--->thalamus-->glutamate=__________-->cortex | globus pallidus sends inhibitory GABAergic projections to the thalamus and the thalamus projects bac tot he primary motor cortex glutamate=excitatory |
| What are the 2 main circuits of basal ganglion internal processing? | Direct and indirect patways -They have opposing actions when ativated by cortical neurons -Also nodulated by DA release in substantia nigra into the striatum |
| BG internal processing (competing direct & indirect opposing pathways) leads to a (poor/finely tuned) balance between the 2 circuits, allowing ______ control of movement | finely tuned refined control of movement |
| Input to the striatum comes from 2 different locations: - _______, which uses glutamate -____________, which uses DA | cortex=glutamate substantia nigra=dopamine |
| Where is sensory information from multiple sensory systems processed before being sent to the frontal cortex motor regions? | posterior parietal |
| Which motor region is the most rostral? | Prefrontal cortex |
| In which lobe is the primary motor cortex located? | frontal |
| Musicians often practice their pieces in their imagination when they are not at their instruments. If a pianist was imaging their fingers practicing a piece, what regions of their brain do you think would be active? | Premotor cortex and frontal cortex |
| The direct pathway begins in the _________, which sends inhibitory projections to the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi). The GPi then sends inhibitory (output/input) to the ____________. | striatum (putamen & caudate) output Thalamus |
| cortical activation of direct/indirect pwathways leads to what thalamic output??? Look in book/fact check | |
| Activation of the direct pathway in the basal ganglia leads to _________ thalamic output | INCREASED - Cortex excites the striatum - Striatum inhibits segment of globus pallidus - Globus pallidus NORAMLLY inhibits the thalamus - SO inhibiting the Gpi=less inhibition of thalamus SOOOOO THALAMUS BECOMES MORE ACTIVE |
| Activation of the indirect pathway leads to __________ thalamic output | DECREASED Cortex&SN sendt glutergic signals to striatum Striatum INHIBITS the INTERNAL segment of GP (GABAergic) SO GP does NOT inhibit the thalamus so thalamus=increased output |
| the direct pathway of basal ganglia used what DA receptor? | D1 metabotropic; excitatory So the cortex excites the striatum, which will inhibit globus pallidus, which will then not inhibit thalamus as much. SO MORE activation of thalamus |
| Cortical activation of the indirect pathway leads to __________ thalamic output | Decreased SN and cortex send inhibitory signals (GABAergic) to the EXTERNAL segment of GP Sends GABAergic signals to the SUBTHALAMIC nucelus which sends EXCITATORY output to the INTERNAL segment of GP Inhibits the thalamus |
| SN activation D1 repectors of the direct pwathway will _________ thalamic output | increase |
| SN inhibition via D2 receptors of the INDIRECT pathway will __________ thalamic output | INCREASE |
| Input from the cortex to the direct pathway of the basal ganglia increases in strength. How will thalamic output to the cortex change? | increases |
| The activation of which dopamine receptor is inhibitory in the basal ganglia | D2 |
| Input from the substantia nigra to the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia increases in strength. How will thalamic output to the cortex change? | Increases |
| What's the point of basal ganglion internal processing? | Allows precise motor movement |
| BG regulate movement by controlling the level of __________ sent to the thalamus via direct and indirect pathways | Inhibition |
| BG influences the _____cortex and ___ fine tunes the cortical effects to ensure that movements are appropriately initiated/suppreseed. | Motor Dopamine |
| Result of poor BG regulation/internal processing | Excessive or insufficient motor output Like Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases respectively |
| What circuits pass through the BG and what are their fxns | Motor-voluntary move oculomotor-role in eye movement Associative circuit-role in executive functions (prevent impulsive behaviors, plannning&problem solving, and mediating socially appropriate behaviors) Limbic/emotion-role in process emotion &reward |
| Here are 4 circuits that pass thru the BG, what are their fxns? Motor Oculomotor Associative Limbic/emotional (each use specific regions in the BG, but have generally the same loop) | Motor-voluntary move oculomotor-role in eye movement Associative circuit-role in executive functions (prevent impulsive behaviors, plannning&problem solving, and mediating socially appropriate behaviors) Limbic/emotion-role in process emotion &reward |
| WHat is the general loop for the circuits that pass thru the BG? I.e. Motor Oculomotor Associative Limbic/emotional | Cortex->striatum (caudate/putamen)->internal processing segment of BG (external for indirect pway)--?pallidum-->thalamus-->cortex |
| Upper motor neurons control (one/multiple) LMN(alpha neuron) in the __________ of the SC that innervate (one/multiple) muscles | multiple LMN Ventral horn of the spinal cord multiple This causes +/- neurons |
| Does execution of movement involve just one muscle? | NO! excite and inhibit different neurons at once that go to different muscles i.e. Flex elbow: Radial nerve: Brachioradialis Musculotaneous nerve: brachialis, biceps brachii |
| What is population coding | Mechanism used by the motor cortex to control movement |
| _____ is a Mechanism used by the motor cortex to control movement | Population coding |
| In population coding, UMN create a certain movement in a certain direction. when is neuronal firing rate the highest?/what's its behavior like? | Highest when move in one direction but firing still occurs when move in nearby directions, just less |
| T or F: the firing rate of one neuron doesn't give enough info to know direction of movement | T - The combined firing rates of an entire population of neurons indicates direction bc nearby neurons still fire, just less than the one assoc w/the direction ur going |
| Lateral descending spinal tracts carry infor about voluntary movement of ___________ | arms and legs |
| Where is teh descending tract for arm/leg movement | Lateral and kinda dorsal too |
| Ventromedial descending pathways carry info about _____________ | posture & balance |
| Where are posture and balance pathways | Called ventromedial: ventral and medial/front |
| _________ tracts carry info about voluntary movemet of arms and legs into brachial plexus and lumbosacral plexus | lateral |
| What r the lateral tracts | Descending spinal tracts (so motor w/upper and LMN) that carry info about voluntary movement to arms and legs |
| ___________ pathway carries info about posture and balance | Ventromedial pathway |
| Ventromedial pathway | Descending pathway (so UMN/LMN) that carries info about posture and balance |
| What are the three types of descending lateral tracts we talked about? | Lateral tract: arm & leg - Corticospinal tract: innervates distal muscles - Corticobulbar tract: innervates cranial nerves bilaterally -3Ventromedial tracts: vestivulospinal-balance head; tectospinal-move head; reticulospinal(2)-anti-bravity reflexes |
| _______ is the largest lateral pathway | corticospinal tract; innvervates distal muscles |
| The corticospinal tract comes directly from motor and premotor cortices down to motor neurons in the ___. Cortical axons go down the brainstem and decussate at the base of the __________.Travels thru the ____column and synapses in the _____________- | Spinal cord. Acons from the gray matter in the premotor/motor area go down the brainstem. Decussate at the base of the medulla Travel through the lateral column of the spinal cord Synapse on ventral horn of LMN *Innverate distal muscles |
| Where does the corticopsinal tract decussate? | At the base of the medulla |
| The corticospinal tract travels throug the ______________ column in the spinal cord and synapses on teh _____________and innervates distal muscles | Lateral Column Ventral horn of the lower motor neuron |
| Wht is the function of the corticobulber tract? | It is a descending motor tract. It sends motor info to cranial nerves for motor control of the face. |
| The ____________________ tract sends motor info to cranial nerves for the motor control of the face. It tracels ispilateral (UMN) from the cortex to the brainste and braches off at the appriopraite CN level (usually in the ___ & ___) | Corticobulbar tract Pons and medulla |
| Where does the corticobulbar tract travel? Does it decussate? | It travels ispilateral from the cortex to brainstem. (innervates CNs) Doesn't decussate, comes out around the pons/medulla tho. Innervates cranial nerves bilaterally |
| The corticobulber tract innverates the cranial nerves (not at all/bilaterally/laterally) | bilaterally |
| What is the fxn of the ventromedial tracts | 4 of them. Usually do w/head/reflexs/balance vestibulospinal-balance for head as we move tectospinal-movement of head bc visual stimuli Reticulospinal-Manage anti-gravity reflexes needed for posture and standing. |
| The ventromedial tracts beings in the ____________ and descends through the __________ columns. It has input from different motor areas of the cortex and integrates sensory info too | ventromedial ventromedial columns |
| What is teh HPA axis? | The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis |
| What is the HPA axis and what are its steps? | It's a hormonal stress response Hypothalamis->CRH-->anterior pituitary-->ACTH-->adrenal cortex-->cortisol |
| Steps of hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis steps: - starts in the ___________, which releases corticotropin RH - Goes to Anterior pituitary, which releases adrenocorticotropin H -THen goes to __________ __________, which releases cortisol | Hypothalamus releases CRH Ant pit releases ACTH Adrenal cortex releasts cortisol (CORT) |
| Where is the hypothalamus in relation to the thalamus? What's its fxn? | Below thal integrates info from CNS has a critical role in maintaining HOMEOSTASIS "master endocrine gland" |
| What is the master endocrine gland | hypothalamus |
| Where is the pituitary located? What's its fxn | below hypothal Releases hormones, hypothalamic regulation of body in response to stress |
| How many lobes does pituitary gland have? | two: anterior and posterior They're both responsible for hormone release and are controlled by the hypothalamus |
| Which pituitary lobe does stress response? | anterior |
| The hypothalamus has two neuron types that secrete hormones to the pituitary, what are they? | Parvocellular neurosecretory cells (smal) Magnocellular neurosecretory cells (big) |
| The hypothalamus primary uses what neurosecretory cell to secrete hormones to the pituitary for stress? | Parvocellular (small) Releases corticotropin RH (CRH) to they hypophyseal portal circulation |
| The hypophyseal portal circulation has blood vessels that come from where? | Straight from hypothalamus |
| Hypothal releases CRH to ant pit, which then releases what? | Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which goes to general circulation and causes the adrenal cortex to release cortisol |
| The hypothalamus causes magnocellular cells to release ... ? | hormones oxygtocin and ADH(vassopressin) from posterior pituitary gland |
| Where are magnocellular cells? What do they do? | In hypothalamus, cause post pit to release oxytocin and ADH/vassopressin They're big |
| Where are parvocellular cells? What do tehy do? | Small cells in the hypothal release corticotropic-releasing hormon (CRH) to hypophyseal portal circulation. causes ant pit to release ACTH which then makes adrenal cortex release cortisol |
| The anterior pituitary receives _________ from the _________ which released it into the hypophyseal portal circultion v post pit has ____________ that release oxytocin and ADH?vassopressin | CRH from parvocellular cells in hypothal magnocellular cells |
| Role of cortisol? | Prepares body for fight or flight stressors |
| cortisol promotoes _____________________ in the liver, which ensures a stready supply of _______, especially for the brain | Gluconeogenesis glucose |
| Cortisol promotes, in muscles and adipose tissue, there is a (higher/lower) glucose uptake what a (higher/lower) protein and fat breakdown | lower glucose uptake in muscle/adipose tissue higher protein and fat breakdown |
| Cortisol modulates the immune system by ________ inflammation and __________ immune activity | suppressing reducing |
| Chronic cortisol elevation (prolonged stress) leads to... -muscle _______ -fat _______ -insulin ____ - WHat w/BP? - Immune _____ | chronic cortisol: muscle wasting, Fat redistribution Insulin resistance Hypertension/high blood pressure Immune system suppression |
| T or F: Chronic stress increases your susceptibility to illness | T |
| WHat is cortisol? What's is synthesized from? | Steroid hormone, is synthesized from cholesterol and can cross the phospholipid bilayer (is lipid soluble) |
| WHat do glucocorticoid receptors bind to? | glucocorticoid receptors bind to cortisol and are found in many cell types |
| What happens to glucocorticoid receptors after bortsol binds to them? | They dimerize |
| Cortisol binds to glucocorticoid receptors. After that, the receptors dimerize and the dimer moves to the ________ where it can do what? | Nucleus it can alter DNA trasncription *this is part of the DNA feedback loop, but chronic stress can lead to issues* |
| What is the negative feedback loop like for stress/cortisol? | The neurons in they hypothalamus and pituitary have glucocorticoid receptors that are activated by cortisol |
| Cortisol response to stress is important in situations like danger, but why is chronic stress not good? | It's unhealthy and can put ppl at risk for heart disease, hypertension, lowered immune system, etc. It can cause structural and functional changes in cortical neurons |
| T or F: chronic stress can cause structural and functional changes in cortical neurons | T |
| What are the two types of stress? | Physical and psych neural circuits involved in response are overlapping but separate |
| what is physical stress | caused by trauma, illness, or injury e.g. blood losss, dehydrate, allergic rxn |
| what is psych stress? | Emotional and mental component e.g. anxiety, fear, guilt |
| What are the two main stress system? | Autonomic response and the hypothalamic adrenal axis |
| What is the autonomic nervous system response to stress? | Very quick & synaptic in nature. Fight or flight sympathetic response like decreased digestion, increased HR and breathe rate |
| What is the hypothalamic adrenal axis response to stress? | More hormonal in nature; slower. Its downstream effects promote energy use |
| Which stress response system is faster? which is slower? why | Autonomic nervous system=faster; synaptic Hypothalamic adrenal axis (HPA)=slower, hormonal. Downstream effects promotoe energy |
| What four brain regions have neural control over stress? | Hypothalamus Amygdala Hippocampus Prefrontal cortex |
| T or F: the hypothalamus plays a critical role in stress | true |
| THe _______ activates both the autonomic and hormonal response to stress & is located in the region above the brainstem on either side of the 3rd ventricle | hypothalamus |
| What activates the autonomic and hormonal stress responses? | Hypothalamus |
| The ______ manages hormone releases and helps with homeostasis | hypothalamus |
| the _______ is critical for numerous fxns: hunger, thirst, temp control, BP regulation, sleep, reproduction, & stress | hypothalamus |
| T or F: the hypothalamus is influenced by activity in other regions of the brain. Environ info is processed adn seen in the amygdala, hippocampus, & prefrontal cortex | T |
| The _______ is almond shaped and asseses stimuli for their potential ability to cause harm and places an emotional value on them | amygdala |
| Conditions like anxiety, depression, PTSD are linked to dysfunctions of the _____________ | amygdala |
| The amygdala is (more/less) activated when ppl look at frightened faces vs neutral faces | more |
| Role of amygdala? | Assesses stimuli for their potential ability to cause harm and places an emotional value on them. -process emotion & consolidate emotional memory -fear learning & evals importance of situation |
| where is the amygdala located | medial to the temporal lobe |
| ____________ plays an excutive decision making role: higher level cognitve fxns like planning, crtical thinking, understanding consequences of behaviors, assoc w/inhibition of compulsive behaviors | Prefrontal cortex |
| Voluntary motivated behaviors are _________ or __________- | rewarding or pleasurable |
| What are naturally rewarding behaviors | food and sex Bc they're necessary for species survival |
| What are adaptive motivated behaviors? | When the nervous system evoves to make these things pleasurable |
| _____________ stimuli increases brain activation in regions that comprise the ____________ circuit | rewarding stimuli reward circuit |
| Th reward circuit depends on ______ action | Dopamine |
| DA is a part of the __________ circuit and is synthesized/released by neurons in the ventral tagemental area part of the BG and adjacent to the SN | DA |
| The reward circuit depends on dopamine action and is synthesized/released by neurons in the _____________ part of the b_____________ g_____________________; & adjacent to the substantia nigra | ventral tagemental area part of the basal ganglia and substantia nigra |
| What are the two primary reward pathways of the substantia nigra? | Mesolimbic pathway: VTA to nucleus accumbens (located in the ventral striatum, which also includes the putamen and caudate nucleus) Mesocortical pathway: VTA the prefrontal cortex |
| What pathway goes from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens in the striatum? | Mesolimbic (striatum also has putamen and nucelus accumbes) |
| What pathway goes from VTA to the prefrontal cortex | Mesocortical |
| Early experiments had an electrode on rats to self-stimulate themselves via activating dopaminergic pathways. They would skip meals to do this (blocking DA receptors created apathy) What's different about later studies | DA signalling happens in ANTICIPATION of reward |
| If level of reward is greater than predicted, then __________- occurs. what if lower? | reward learning occurs if lower than anticipated, then DA is signalling. |
| Nature rewards increase survival and fitness of a species activate the ________________ ___________. Name some examples | reward circuit Food (like increased fat and carbs), parental bonding, social bonding, sex |
| Drug abuse activates the __________ circuit and _______ signalling | reward DA They increase the DA effect on the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic pathway) |
| How does cocaine work? | Cocaine blocks the reuptake of DA into the cell |
| How does heroin and nicotine work? | They increase DA release in the VTA |
| What are the two types of fear? | Innate and learned |
| What is innate fear? | Avoid ertian stimunli like snakes even tho we've never seen them before |
| What is learned fear? | Arousal/anxiety bc its been assoc w/painful or negative past experience |
| What are two protocols for examining learned fear? | Fear conditioning and conditioned defeat |
| What experiment did John LeDoux do? | conditioned fear in lab rats Paired shock w/bell, so that rats freeze bc of the bell "induce a conditioned emotional response" |
| what is preconditioned defeat? | Where an animal shows submissive or avoidant behavior towards a smaller animal. Happens as a result of being put into the home cage of a larger, aggressive animal that beats it up and it loses. Has long lasting effects on the subject |
| What is PTSD? | Post traumatic stress disorder happens after the patient experiences some sort of trauma (only psych disorder w/a definitive known cause: traumatic stress) Patients feel stressed/frightened even when in an safe environment--triggers |
| WHo does PTSD happen to? What does it happen after? | Anyone Combat experience, physical/emotional/sexual assault/aabuse, accidents, natural disasters |
| M or F more likely to have PTSD? | WOmen are supposedly 2x more likely Genetics determine 30-40% of your risk |
| What are three symptoms of PTSD? | Re-experiencing: Stim cause aptient to relive traumatic experience/flashbacks avoidance:lack emotion,lose interest,withdraw hyper-arousal:increased anxiety or feel tense in safe environ; easily frightened, trouble sleep, freq angry outburts |
| Re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal are symptoms of what? | PTSD |
| WHat is re-experiencing? | Symptom of PTSD that arises when stimuli causes patients to relive traumatic experiences. Can be frightening thoughts, nightmares, or flashbacks |
| What is avoidance? | PTSD symptom where u feel lack of emotion, lose interest in activities they used to enjoy, or withdrawal from family/friends; perhaps to avoid triggers |
| What is hyper-arousal? | Symptom of PTSD where increased anxiety or feeling tense in a safe environment. Easily frightened, trouble sleeping, freq angry outburts. |
| What happens in the brian bc PTSD? | Hippocampus & PFC: decreased activity and volume. So less effective at inhibiting stress response - Increased activity in amygdala: more effective@activating it,results in increased stress sensitivity & generalization of fear response to non-threat stim |
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