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Stack #4668316
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Electron cloud | area around the nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found |
| Atomic orbitals | are the specific region |
| quantum numbers | a set of numbers used to describe the location and energy of an electron within an atom |
| principal quantum number (n) | a whole number that indicates the main energy level of an electron in an atom |
| magnetic quantum number (l) | a quantum number that describes the orientation of an electron orbital in space within a given subshell of an atom |
| angular momentum quantum number (ml) | a quantum number that describes the shape of an electron's orbital within an atom |
| electron configuration | a simple way of describing the arrangement of electrons around an atom's nucleus, indicating which orbitals the electrons occupy and how many electrons are in each orbital, essentially mapping out where the electrons are located within an atom |
| periods | a horizontal row on the periodic table, where all elements within that row share the same number of electron shells |
| groups | a vertical column on the periodic table, where all elements within that column have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outermost shell |
| shell | a specific energy level around an atom's nucleus where electrons are located |
| subshells | a group of orbitals within a specific electron shell that have the same energy level and shape |
| compound | a substance formed when two or more elements chemically bond in specific ratios, having properties different from the individual elements (e.g., H₂O for water) |
| Lewis dot symbols | diagrams that represent an element's valence electrons as dots around its chemical symbol, used to visualize bonding and electron sharing |
| octet rule | a principle stating that atoms tend to bond in a way that gives them eight valence electrons, achieving a stable configuration similar to noble gases |
| valence electrons | the outermost electrons of an atom that are involved in chemical bonding and determine an element's reactivity |
| boiling point | the specific temperature at which a liquid transforms into a vapor, occurring when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding it |
| melting point | the specific temperature at which a solid transforms into a liquid, occurring when the thermal energy overcomes the forces holding the solid’s particles in a fixed structure |
| matter | anything that has mass and takes up space |
| solid | a state of matter characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes in shape or volume |
| sublimation | the process where a substance directly changes from a solid state to a gaseous state without passing through a liquid phase |
| covalent compounds | substances formed when atoms share electrons in chemical bonds, typically between nonmetals (e.g., H₂O, CO₂) |
| electrical conductors | materials that allow electricity to flow easily due to the presence of free-moving electrons (e.g., metals like copper and aluminum) |
| electrical insulators | materials that resist the flow of electricity, as their electrons are not free to move (e.g., rubber, glass) |
| ionic compounds | substances formed when atoms transfer electrons, creating positively and negatively charged ions that attract each other (e.g., NaCl) |
| metallic compounds | substances formed by metallic bonds where positively charged metal ions are surrounded by a shared "sea of electrons" (e.g., alloys like steel) |
| sea of electrons | a model describing the freely moving electrons in metallic bonds that allow metals to conduct electricity and heat |
| viscosity | a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow; higher viscosity means the fluid flows more slowly (e.g., honey has higher viscosity than water) |
| chemical formula | a symbolic representation of a compound's composition (e.g., H₂O for water or NaCl for table salt) |
| law of constant composition | a principle stating that a compound always contains its elements in a fixed ratio by mass |
| nuclear model | describes the atom as a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons in mostly empty space (Rutherford, 1911) |
| planetary model | depicts electrons orbiting the nucleus in specific energy levels, like planets around the sun (Bohr, 1913) |
| plum pudding model | represents the atom as a positive sphere with embedded electrons, like raisins in pudding (Thomson, 1904) |
| quantum mechanics | explains atomic and subatomic behavior using probabilities, with electrons in orbitals rather than fixed paths |
| electronegativity | a measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons in a chemical bond; atoms with higher electronegativity pull electrons closer to themselves, while atoms with lower electronegativity do not attract electrons as strongly |
| chemical bond | the force that holds atoms together in a compound, allowing them to form stable structures by sharing or transferring electrons |
| covalent bond | forms when two nonmetal atoms share electrons to fill their outer shells, creating stable molecules |
| ionic bond | forms when one atom transfers electrons to another, creating oppositely charged ions that attract; commonly occurs between metals and nonmetals |
| metallic bond | forms between metal atoms where electrons become free-moving, creating a "sea of electrons" around positive ions, allowing conductivity |
| valence electrons | the outermost electrons of an atom; these electrons are involved in chemical bonding and determine how an atom interacts with other atoms |
| Lewis dot structures | diagrams that show the valence electrons of an atom as dots around its chemical symbol; they help visualize how atoms bond and share electrons |
| electron regions | areas around an atom where electrons are likely to be found, such as bonds or lone pairs; these regions influence the shape of a molecule |
| electron repulsion | refers to the way negatively charged electrons push away from each other; this affects the arrangement of electron regions around an atom |
| molecular geometry | the three-dimensional shape of a molecule; it is determined by the arrangement of atoms and electron regions around the central atom |
| VSEPR theory | explains the shape of molecules by stating that electron regions around an atom repel each other and arrange themselves as far apart as possible |
| dipole-dipole forces | attractions between the positive and negative ends of polar molecules; these forces occur when molecules with partial charges come close to each other |
| polar molecules | have an uneven distribution of electrons, resulting in partial positive and negative charges on opposite ends of the molecule; this happens when atoms in the molecule have different electronegativities |
| hydrogen bonding | a strong type of dipole-dipole force; it occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) is attracted to another electronegative atom |
| intramolecular forces | the bonds that hold atoms together within a molecule, such as covalent or ionic bonds |
| van der Waals forces | weak attractions between molecules caused by temporary or permanent changes in how electrons are spread out |
| metallic bonding | occurs between atoms of the same metal; it involves a "sea of electrons" where free-moving valence electrons surround positively charged metal ions, allowing metals to conduct electricity and be malleable |
| electron domains | regions around an atom where electrons are likely to be found; these can include bonded electrons (shared in a bond) or lone pairs (nonbonded electrons) |
| orbital hybridization | the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc. than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory |
| molecular geometry | the three-dimensional shape of a molecule, determined by the arrangement of atoms and electron regions around the central atom |
| chemical reactions | processes where substances, called reactants, change into new substances, called products, by breaking and forming chemical bonds |
| diatomic molecules | molecules composed of only two atoms, which may be of the same element or different elements |
| conservation of mass | means that during a chemical or physical process, the total amount of matter stays the same, even if its form changes |
| law of conservation of mass | states that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products |
| molar mass | the mass of one mole of a substance, measured in grams per mole (g/mol); it is calculated by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms in a compound |
| stoichiometry | the study of the relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in a chemical reaction, based on the balanced chemical equation |
| equilibrium | occurs in a chemical reaction when the forward and reverse reactions happen at the same rate, and the amounts of reactants and products remain constant over time |
| equilibrium constant | a number that shows the ratio of the concentrations of products to reactants at equilibrium; it indicates whether products or reactants are favored in the reaction |
| Le Chatelier's principle | states that if a change is made to a system at equilibrium, the system will adjust to counteract the change and restore equilibrium |
| catalyst | a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up or permanently changed during the reaction |
| reaction rate | the speed at which a chemical reaction happens, measured by how quickly reactants are turned into products |
| collision theory | states that chemical reactions occur when particles collide with enough energy and the right orientation to break bonds and form new ones |
| surface area | the amount of surface that a material has per unit mass |
| concentration | a relatively large quantity of substance present in a unit amount of a mixture |
| acid | a substance that donates H⁺ ions in a solution (Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, or Lewis definitions) |
| base | a substance that accepts H⁺ ions or donates electron pairs, depending on the acid-base theory |
| Brønsted-Lowry theory | defines acids as proton (H⁺) donors and bases as proton (H⁺) acceptors |
| Lewis theory | defines acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors |
| pH scale | a scale from 0 to 14 that measures the acidity or basicity of a solution |
| ionization | the process by which an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons, creating ions |
| self-ionization of water | the process by which water molecules produce equal amounts of H₃O⁺ and OH⁻ ions, resulting in a neutral pH of 7 |
| Kw (ion-product constant for water) | the equilibrium constant for water's ionization, equal to [H₃O⁺][OH⁻] = 1 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C |
| pKa | a measure of an acid's strength, indicating how easily an acid donates H⁺ ions |
| conjugate acid | the species formed when a base gains a proton (H⁺) |
| conjugate base | the species formed when an acid loses a proton (H⁺) |
| buffer | a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base (or vice versa) that resists changes in pH |
| neutralization reaction | a reaction where an acid and base combine to form water and a salt |
| redox acid-base reaction | an acid-base reaction that also involves electron transfer |
| acidity | the concentration of H⁺ ions in a solution, often measured by pH |
| basicity (alkalinity) | the concentration of OH⁻ ions in a solution, often measured by pH |
| equilibrium | the state where the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant over time in a reaction |
| concentration | the amount of a substance (solute) dissolved in a specific amount of liquid (solvent); it shows how strong or weak a solution is |
| molality | a measure of concentration expressed as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (mol/kg) |
| molarity | a measure of concentration expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L) |
| parts per million (ppm) | a unit of concentration that shows the number of parts of solute in one million parts of solution; it is often used for very small concentrations |
| fission | the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two smaller nuclei |
| fusion | the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus |
| energy | the ability to do work, released in nuclear reactions |
| temperature | the degree of heat necessary for fusion reactions |
| pressure | the force exerted per unit area, required for fusion reactions |
| sun | the star at the center of our solar system, powered by fusion reaction |
| radioactive decay | the process by which unstable atoms release energy and particles from their nucleus to become more stable |
| atomic nucleus | the atom's core contains protons and neutrons |
| nucleus | central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons |
| strong nuclear force | force that holds protons and neutrons together |
| binding energy | energy required to hold the nucleus together |
| neutron-to-proton ratio | ratio influencing nuclear stability |
| magic numbers | specific numbers of protons or neutrons associated with increased stability |
| gamma emission | release of gamma rays from an excited nucleus without changing its composition |
| positron emission | transformation of a proton into a neutron, emitting a positron and decreasing the atomic number by 1 |
| electron capture | process where the nucleus captures an electron, combining it with a proton to form a neutron |
| conservation of energy | principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change forms |
| mass-energy equivalence | concept that mass and energy are interchangeable |
| momentum | quantity of motion in a particle or system |
| electrostatic repulsion | force pushing like-charged particles apart |
| chain reaction | series of reactions triggered by released particles |
| nuclear reactor | device that uses controlled fission to generate energy |
| alpha decay | a type of radioactive decay where an unstable nucleus releases an alpha particle, which consists of two protons and two neutrons |
| beta decay | a radioactive process where a nucleus emits a beta particle (an electron or a positron) to become more stable |
| daughter nuclide | the new, more stable nucleus formed after a radioactive decay process |
| decay constant (λ) | a value that represents the probability of a nucleus decaying in a given time period |
| gamma rays | high-energy electromagnetic waves released from a nucleus during radioactive decay |
| half-life | the time it takes for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay |
| parent nuclide | the original unstable nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay to form a daughter nuclide |
| probabilistic process | an event governed by chance, such as the decay of a radioactive nucleus, where exact timing cannot be predicted |
| radioactive decay | the process where unstable nuclei release energy and particles to become more stable. |
| radioactivity | the emission of energy or particles from unstable nuclei as they undergo radioactive decay |
| radiometric dating | a method used to determine the age of materials by measuring the amounts of parent and daughter nuclides |
| unstable nuclei | atomic nuclei with an imbalance of protons and neutrons, causing them to release energy or particles to reach stability |
| becquerel | the International System of Units (SI) unit for measuring radioactivity; one becquerel is equal to one nuclear decay, or the loss of a neutron or proton, per second |
| cloud chamber | a device used to visualize the paths of charged particles, like alpha or beta particles, by creating a supersaturated vapor environment where the particles ionize the gas, causing visible condensation trails to form along their path, essentially acting as |
| curie | a unit used in chemistry to measure the rate of radioactive decay, where one curie is defined as 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations (decays) per second |
| dosimeter | a device that measures exposure to ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, gamma rays, or neutrons; dosimeters are used to ensure that people are not exposed to harmful doses of radiation over time |
| Geiger counter | a radiation detection instrument that uses gas ionization to measure the intensity and presence of ionizing radiation |
| gray | the International System of Units (SI) unit for measuring the absorbed dose of radiation; one gray is equal to one joule of energy absorbed per kilogram of matter; the gray is used to measure the absorbed dose of any type of radiation, such as alpha, beta |
| ionizing radiation | radiation that has enough energy to break an electron away from an atom, a process called ionization; because ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms, it has the ability to change the chemical composition of the material it int |
| rad | stands for "radiation absorbed dose," which is a unit used to measure the amount of ionizing radiation absorbed by a material or tissue, essentially indicating how much energy is deposited in a given mass of matter from radiation exposure; 1 rad is equiva |
| scintillation counter | a device that measures radioactivity by detecting and counting flashes of light produced by ionizing radiation |
| sievert | the International System of Units (SI) unit used to measure the dose of radiation that affects the human body |
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