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Bio exam 3
concepts not known well
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| four features of chordates | • Dorsal, hollow nerve cord • Notochord • Pharyngeal slits • Muscular post-anal tail |
| Major derived traits in chordate evolution: | • Vertebral column • Hinged jaws • Lungs or lung derivatives • Lobed fins • Legs |
| Subgroups are defined by these traits: | • Vertebrates → vertebral column • Jawed vertebrates → jaws • Tetrapods → legs • Amniotes → amniotic egg • Mammals → milk |
| vertebrate groups | Hagfishes, Lampreys, Sharks/rays, Ray-finned fishes, Lobe-finned fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals |
| Hagfishes | rudimentary vertebrae, no jaws or paired fins, slime defense |
| Lampreys | rudimentary vertebrae, no jaws, parasitic with rasping tongue |
| Sharks/rays | cartilage skeleton |
| Ray-finned fishes | bony skeleton, fins with thin rays |
| Lobe-finned fishes | bony skeleton, rod-shaped bones in fins |
| Amphibians | moist skin, gas exchange through skin + lungs, lay eggs in water |
| Reptiles | amniotic egg, scales, lungs, ectothermic |
| Birds | feathered reptiles, endothermic, adapted for flight |
| Mammals | hair, mammary glands (milk), endothermic |
| Tiktaalik | lobe-finned fish with lungs and structures like fins and limbs |
| Acanthostega | early tetrapod with both fish traits (gills, tail fin) and tetrapod traits (limbs with digits) |
| Monotremes | egg-laying mammals platypus |
| Marsupials | short gestation, offspring develop attached to nipples kangaroos, koalas |
| Eutherians | fully developed placenta, give birth to well-developed young humans, dog, whales |
| compare three main groups of primates | |
| Monkeys | o Found in Old & New World o Walk on all fours o Have tails o Smaller brains |
| Apes | o Found only in Old World o Can be bipedal o No tails o Larger brains and more flexible behavior |
| Evidence hominins did not evolve in a straight line | • Multiple hominin species coexisted at the same time • Examples: several species lived 1.7 million years ago and even 100,000 years ago • Differences in diet and geography • Evolution is not linear |
| Evidence for upright posture and large brains | • Bipedalism evolved before large brains • Evidence: skull opening position and ancient footprints • Brain size increased later in genus Homo |
| Relationship between Neanderthals and modern humans | • Coexisted in Europe and western Asia • Interbred (non-Africans have 1–2% Neanderthal DNA) • Neanderthals went extinct ~39,000 years ago • Likely due to competition, climate change, and small populations |
| Levels of organization in an animal’s body | cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism |
| Cells | smallest structural unit of life |
| Tissues | groups of similar cells that perform a common function |
| Organs | made of two or more tissues that perform a specific task |
| Organ Systems | multiple organs working together to perform vital functions |
| Organism | all organ systems functioning together |
| Four main types of animal tissues (structure & function) | Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, Nervous tissue |
| Epithelial tissue | • Structure: sheets of closely packed cells • Covers body surfaces, organs, and cavities • Types based on layers (simple/stratified) and shape (flat, cube, column) |
| Connective tissue | • Structure: sparse cells in extracellular matrix (ECM) • Function: support, bind, protect |
| Connective tissue types | o Loose (support, cushioning) o Fibrous (strength; tendons) o Adipose (fat storage, insulation) o Cartilage (flexible support) o Bone (rigid support) o Blood (transport) |
| Muscle tissue | • Structure: long cells with contractile proteins • Function: movement • Types: o Skeletal (voluntary movement) o Cardiac (pumps blood) o Smooth (moves internal organs) |
| Nervous tissue | • Structure: neurons + glial cells • Function: o senses stimuli o transmits information • Neurons carry electrical impulses • Glial cells support, insulate, and nourish neurons |
| How organ structure is based on tissues | • Organs are made of multiple tissues working together • Example: small intestine o Epithelial tissue lines it o Connective tissue contains blood vessels o Smooth muscle moves food o Nervous tissue (ENS) controls activity |
| How organ systems work together | • Organ systems: o consist of many organs o have specific functions o interact with other systems • Together they create a functional organism |
| 12 major vertebrate organ systems (structure & function) | Nervous system (CNS + PNS), Circulatory system, Respiratory system, Integumentary system, Skeletal system, Muscular system, Urinary system, Digestive system, Lymphatic system, Immune system, Reproductive system, Endocrine system |
| Nervous system (CNS + PNS) | • CNS: brain & spinal cord → integrates information • PNS: sensory & motor neurons → carries signals |
| Circulatory system | • Delivers O₂ and nutrients • Removes CO₂ and wastes |
| Respiratory system | • Exchanges gases • Supplies O₂ and removes CO₂ |
| Integumentary system | • Skin, hair, nails • Protection from injury, infection, temperature, drying |
| Skeletal system | • Bones, cartilage, ligaments, joints • Support, protection, movement framework |
| Muscular system | • Muscles & tendons • Movement, posture, heat production |
| Urinary system | • Kidneys, urethra • Removes waste • Regulates pH, water, and chemical balance |
| Digestive system | • Digestive tract • Ingestion, digestion, nutrient absorption, elimination |
| Lymphatic system | • Returns fluid to blood • Transports fats • Part of immune defense |
| Immune system | • Defends against infection and cancer |
| Reproductive system | • Produces gametes and hormones • Female uterus supports embryo |
| Endocrine system | • Secretes hormones • Regulates body processes (metabolism, growth, stress, etc.) |
| Systems that exchange materials with the environment | Respiratory system, Digestive system, Urinary system, Circulatory system, Structures like lungs increase surface area for exchange |
| Respiratory system | gas exchange (O₂ & CO₂) |
| Digestive system | nutrients |
| Urinary system | waste removal |
| Circulatory system | transports materials between systems |
| Homeostasis (definition + example) | • Homeostasis = maintaining stable internal conditions • Achieved by multiple organ systems working together • Uses negative feedback • Example: maintaining body temperature (~37°C) |
| negative feedback | |
| Negative feedback & body temperature regulation | • Controlled by the hypothalamus (control center) |
| If body temperature rises | • Sweat glands activated → cooling • Blood vessels dilate → heat loss • Hypothalamus turns off cooling once normal |
| If body temperature falls | • Blood vessels constrict → conserve heat • Muscles shiver → generate heat • Hypothalamus turns off warming once normal • Keeps temperature near a set point (~37°C) with small fluctuations |
| feeding types | herbivores, carnivores, omnivores |
| Herbivores | eat plants (e.g., cattle, gorillas) |
| Carnivores | eat meat (e.g., lions, owls) |
| Omnivores | eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, raccoons) |
| Feeding mechanisms | Suspension feeders, Suspension feeders, Fluid feeders, Bulk feeders |
| Suspension feeders | capture food particles from the surrounding medium |
| Substrate feeders | live in/on their food source and eat through it |
| Fluid feeders | suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host |
| Bulk feeders | ingest large pieces of food |
| Four stages of food processing | Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Elimination |
| Ingestion | taking in food |
| Digestion | breaking food down (mechanical, chemical) |
| mechanical digestion | physically breaks food into smaller pieces |
| chemical digestion | enzymes break macromolecules into simpler molecules (via hydrolysis) |
| Absorption | nutrients enter body cells |
| Elimination | undigested material exits the body |
| Gastrovascular cavity | o Single opening (mouth) o Functions in digestion and distribution o Found in cnidarians and flatworms |
| Alimentary canal | o Tube with two openings (mouth → anus) o Specialized regions for digestion and absorption o Found in most animals |
| Main components of the human alimentary canal | • Oral cavity (mouth) • Pharynx (throat) • Esophagus • Stomach • Small intestine • Large intestine • Rectum • Anus |
| Main components of the human alimentary accessory digestive glands/organs | • Salivary glands (amylase in saliva) • Liver (produces bile, processes blood, detoxifies) • Gallbladder (stores bile) • Pancreas (produces digestive enzymes) |
| Swallowing reflex and food direction | • The swallowing reflex: o Moves food into the esophagus o Prevents food from entering the trachea • The epiglottis: o Blocks the trachea during swallowing o If it fails, food enters the trachea → triggers coughing (“wrong pipe”) |
| pharynx connects to | o Esophagus (digestive system) o Trachea (respiratory system) |
| Chemical digestion in the small intestine | • The small intestine is the main site of chemical digestion and absorption • Nutrients are absorbed through the intestinal lining into the body |
| Pancreatic and intestinal enzymes break down | o Proteins → amino acids o Carbohydrates → monosaccharides o Fats → glycerol & fatty acids o Nucleic acids → nucleotides |
| Proteins | amino acids |
| Carbohydrates | monosaccharides |
| Fats | glycerol & fatty acids |
| Nucleic acids | nucleotides |
| Bile | (from liver, stored in gallbladder): o Emulsifies fats (breaks into small droplets) |
| Describe the three main phases of gas exchange in a human | breathing, transport of gases, exchange with body cells |
| Breathing | air is inhaled and exhaled through the respiratory system |
| Transport of gases | the circulatory system carries O₂ and CO₂ in the blood |
| Exchange with body cells | body tissues take in O₂ and release CO₂ |
| Describe four types of respiratory surfaces | skin, gills, tracheal system, lungs |
| Skin (body surface) (the kinds of animals that use them) | used by earthworms and frogs (underwater). |
| gills (the kinds of animals that use them) | used by aquatic animals like fish |
| Tracheal system (the kinds of animals that use them) | used by insects |
| Lungs (the kinds of animals that use them) | used by mammals (humans) |
| Explain how the amount of oxygen available in air compares to that available in water. | Air contains about 30 times more oxygen than water. |
| Explain how the structure of fish gills maximizes oxygen exchange | filaments with many lamellae, creating a large surface area countercurrent exchange, where water and blood flow in opposite directions, allowing more O₂ to diffuse into the blood |
| Explain why breathing air is easier than using water for gas exchange. | • Air has more oxygen. • Air is lighter and easier to move than water. |
| tracheal system of insects | Insects have branching air tubes (tracheae) that deliver O₂ directly to body cells and remove CO₂. They connect to external openings and include air sacs. The circulatory system is not involved in gas transport. |
| Describe the structures of a human respiratory system. | Nasal cavity, Pharynx & larynx, Trachea, Bronchi & bronchioles, Alveoli, Diaphragm |
| Nasal cavity corresponding functions | filters, warms, moistens air |
| Pharynx & larynx corresponding functions | passageway for air |
| Trachea corresponding functions | carries air to lungs |
| Bronchi & bronchioles corresponding functions | distribute air in lungs |
| Alveoli corresponding functions | gas exchange (thin, moist, large surface area) |
| Diaphragm corresponding functions | helps ventilate lungs by changing chest volume |
| Explain how breathing is controlled in humans | The medulla monitors blood pH (linked to CO₂ levels). When CO₂ rises, pH drops → signals increase breathing rate and depth. Sensors in blood vessels also detect pH changes and send signals to the brain. |
| Explain how blood transports gases between the lungs and tissues of the body | Blood carries gases by diffusion (high to low concentration): • Lungs: blood picks up O₂ and releases CO₂ • Tissues: blood delivers O₂ and picks up CO₂ |
| Describe the functions of hemoglobin | • Transports O₂ and CO₂ in the blood • Can carry up to 4 O₂ molecules • Helps buffer blood pH by absorbing H⁺ ions |
| Circulatory system (function) | A system that facilitates exchange with all body tissues by transporting oxygen, nutrients, wastes, and gases throughout the body. |
Created by:
Lworzalla123