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Bio 3 Exam Terms
Things to know for bio 3 exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Endocrine and Nervous Systems | the organ systems primarily involved in homeostasis |
| Endotherms/ Regulators | generate their own heat internally |
| Ectotherms/ Conformers | are warmed by heat from an external source |
| Evolutionary benefits of thermoregulating | Not overheating - proteins denature, membranes unstable. Not getting too cold - metabolism and enzymatic reactions increase at warmer temperatures |
| Costs of thermoregulating | energy (ATP, food), required for mechanisms. They need to eat more than ectotherms of a similar size |
| Body temp regulation - Radiation | heat transfer from a warmer object to a cooler one ex: absorbing heat from the sun |
| Body temp regulation - Evaporation | vaporization of water from a surface (heat is released) ex: sweating evaporating from the skin It takes lots of energy to break hydrogen bonds |
| Body temp regulation - Conduction | heat transfer between two objects by direct contact ex: sitting on cool concrete |
| Body temp regulation - Convection | heat transfer through ovement of air or liquid (not direct contact) ex: cool breeze on a hot day |
| The four types of heat exchange in ectotherms | radiation, evaporation, conduction, convection |
| Thermoregulatory adaptions | Insulation (fat, hair, feathers), evaporation (sweating/panting), behavioral (what ectotherms do), circulation (vasodilation widens blood vessels, enhances heat loss, vasoconstriction decreases blood vessels and decreases heat loss) |
| Endocrine system | signaling molecules (hormones) travel directly via blood affecting various cells with receptors. Acts "globally". Slower, but longer lasting. Growth, reproduction, digestion |
| Nervous system | Electrochemical (electric and neurotransmitters) signaling travels to a specific location affecting neurons or muscle/gland cells. Acts "specifically", along dedicated routes. Faster, but fleeting. Reflex3s, movements, and other rapid responses |
| Peptide hormones (amino acid based) | Water soluble. Flows directly in the bloodstream. Cannot travel through the plasma membrane. Bind to the receptor in the membrane of the target cell. Triggers signal transduction (second messenger, kinases, etc). Turns on genes indirectly |
| Steroid hormones (lipids) | Lipid soluble. Binds to a carrier protein that excorts them through the blood. Travel through plasma membrane into the target cell. Bind to the receptors in the cytoplasm or inside the nucleus. Acts as transcription factor - can activate genes directly. |
| One hormone - different effects | A single hormone can create different responses in different cells based on the receptor it interacts with tand the relay proteins involved in the signaling pathway. |
| Signaling molecuels - Endocrine system | Hormones: Released by cells of the endocrine system. Travel in the bloodstream and affect target cells. Endocrine signaling |
| Signaling molecules - Nervous system | Neurotransmitters: Act on other neurons, muscles, or glands. Travel very short distance across a synapse. Synaptic signaling. |
| Signaling molecules - Neurohormones | Released by neurosecretory cells. Travel in the bloodstream. Neuroendocrine signaling. |
| Pancreas | a multi-part gland that secretes digestive enzymes into ducts. Small endocrine organs "islets" within it, also: alpha cells secrete glucagon Beta cells secrete insulin (directly into the blood) |
| Insulin | a peptide hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas. It is in a control system that helps keep blood glucose from rising too high. |
| Type I Diabetes | Loss of insulin-producing beta cells (autoimmune or viral). Insulin shots required and diet must be monitered. |
| Type II Diabetes | Cells resist the influence of insulin and do not take up glucose. Pancreas overproduces insulin and becomes desensitized. Your blood eventually stops making insulin. Diet change, weight loss, exercise can reverse (but may be genetic). |
| Basal metabolic rate | The amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time (base level to stay alive). This is the rate when you are not exercising or stressed out. (The more active and exercise you do, the faster your metabolism) |
| 4 stages of food processing | ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination |
| Ingestion | the act of eating or feeding |
| Digestion | when food is broken down into small molecules (mechanical and chemical) |
| Absorption | intestinal absorption from digesstive tract to blood and small nutrient molecules enter body cells |
| Elimination | passing of undigested material and wastes out of the digestive system |
| Four basic ways to ingest | substrate feeding, suspension feeding, fluid feeding, and bulk feeding |
| Substrate feeding | live in or on their food source |
| Suspension feeding | filter, capture or trap food |
| Fluid feeding | suck fluid nutrients from a host |
| Bulk feeding | consume large pieces of food (most) |
| Types of digestion | mechanical digestion and chemical digestion |
| Mechanical digestion | breaks food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area exposes surfaces to chemical digestion. Ex: chewing, grinding, churning/peristalsis via muscle contractions |
| Chemical digestion | cleaves large molecules into smaller molecules (protein -> amino acids) using enzymes. Process called enzymatic hydrolysis uses water and digestive enzymes to break down polymers |
| Compartmentalization | processing food within intracellular or extracellular compartments. How we safely eat |
| Intracellular digestion | Food vacuoles are an example of intracellular digestion. Food vacuoles plus digestive enzymes break the food down safely. (Ex sponges) |
| Extracellular digestion | Most animals have extracellular digestion using a long alimentary canal with compartments |
| Gastrovascular cavity | Simple body plans have a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening. Single opening EITHER takes in food for digestion OR expels waste. Intracellular and extracellular digestion. (ex. hydra uses tentacles, 2 specialized cells, enzymes, and food vacuoles) |
| Alimentary canal | Complex body plans have an alimentary canal with two separate openings. One opening takes in food (mouth) and the other expels waste (anus). They can eat and digest at the same time. (ex. worms, grasshoppers, birds, us) |
| Overview of digestion | Begins in the oral cavity, then goes to the stomach, then further digestion in the small intestine, then after digestion there is absorption in the small intestine, then. absorption and elimination in the large intestine |
| Digestion in the oral cavity | Mechanical digestion with the teeth and tongue. Salivary glads -> saliva (chemical digestion) Amylase breaks down starch (plants) and glycogen (animals). |
| Digestion in the oral cavity - peristalsis in esophagus | waves of smooth muscular contractions moves the bolus down the esophagus to stomach - mechanical digestion |
| Mechanical digestion in the stomach | Muscular contraction - churn the food. Mixes food with digestive juices to form chyme. Moves food into the small intestine by peristalsis or churning |
| Chemical digestion in the stomach | Gastric juices (pH = 2). HCl disrupts the extracellular matrix binding cells together, kills bacteria, and denatures proteins. Pepsin digests proteins. |
| Heartburn | When acidic chyme in stomach goes back into the esophagus |
| Mechanical digestion in the small intestine | Peristalsis moves digested food from duodenum to jejunum and ileum |
| Chemical digestion in the small intestine | Various digestive enzymes. Most enzymatic hydrolysis happens in the duodenum (first 25 cm). Here, it mixes with juices from the other accessory glands (pancreas, liver, gallbladder) |
| Pancreas | Alkaline solution (neutralizes acid from chyme). Many enzymes: amylase, proteases, lipases, etc |
| Liver and gall bladder | Liver makes bile: lipid digestion, RBC destruction. Bile is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder. Fat digestion is facilitated by bile salts that break apart fat droplets for easier digestion in the small intestines. |
| Overview digestion | Mouth: amylases break down polysaccharides. Stomach: pepsin breaks down proteins. Small intestine: further breakdown ALL molecules |
| Carboydrate digestion | Oral cavity (salivary amylase) -> stomach (n/a) -> small intestine (pancreatic amylases) -> small intestine (enzymes from intestinal epthelium |
| Protein digestion | Stomach (pepsin) -> small intestine (enzymes from pancreas) -> small intestine (enzymes from intestinal epithelium) |
| Nucleic acid digestion | Small intestine (pancreatic nucleases) -> small intestine (enzymes from intestinal epithelium) |
| Fat digestion | Small intestine (enzymes from pancreas) |
| Absorption in the small intestine | Happens in jejunum and ileum. Huge surface area increases rate of absorption. Nutrient-rich blood traels directly to the liver (via the hepatic portal vien). Liver filters, then the blood travels to the rest of the body. |
| Absorption and elimination in the large intestine | Water and some nutriends re reabsorbed in the colon and cecum (ferments plant material in herbivourous animals (ours is small)). |
| Osmoconformer | is isoosmotic with its surroundings (osmolarity changes with environment). Many marine animals. Less energy expended trying to control osmolarity. |
| Osmoregulator | controls internal osmolarity independent of the environment. Freshwater animals and mammals (and salmon). More energy-intensive to keep osmolarity in a tightly controlled range. |
| Osmoregulation in a marine fish | Gain of water and salt ions from food -> excretion of salt ions from gills -> osmotic water loss through gills and other parts of body Gain of water and salt ions from drink seawater -> excretion of salt ions and small amount water in urine from kidney |
| Osmoregulation in a freshwater fish | Gain of water and some ions in food -> uptake of salt ions by gills -> osmotic water gain through gills and other parts of body surface -> excretion of salt ions and large amounts of water in dilute urine from kidneys |
| Nitrogneous waste | Breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids - varies based on animal's habitats. Ammonia, urea, and uric acid. |
| Ammonia | Higher toxicity, but soluble and requires a loss of a lot of water to remove it (easy for aquatic fish) |
| Urea | Lower toxicity, requires some energy to convert ammonia to urea in the liver (amphibians/mammals/US), we can hold it and release it at times |
| Uric acid | Non-toxic, require most energy to make, and lose the least water (birds/ reptiles/ insects) |
| Vertebrate excretory system | Our excretory tubule - the kidney "nephron". Each nephron of the kidney has extensive tubules associated with blood vessels. Nephrons filter, reabsorb water, secrete, and excrete liquid waste. |
| Transport epithelia | are involved in osmoregulation and nitrogenous waste disposal that moves solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions. They are arranged in complex tubular networks for maximum surface area. |
| 4 excretory functions | Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion |
| Filtration | water, small solutes, etc are filtered out the blood into the excretory tubule (inBOWman's capsule). Blood pressure drives this process. Only small molecules end up in resulting filtrate. General filtration from blood into tubule (transport not specific) |
| Reabsorption | Water and useful solues (sugars, vitamins, amino acids) are returned to the blood via active transport. Selective reabsorption (by active transport) back into blood from tubule. |
| Secretion | What is left? Nonessential solutes or wate (toxins or excess ions) are secreted out of the blood via active transport |
| Excretion | Filtrate (what we call urine) is released from the body (elimination). |
| Loop of Henle | In vertebrate kidneys, most water reabsorption is done in collecting ducts parallel to the loop of Henle. Loop of Henle length positively correlated with water concentration |
| Arteries | take oxygenated blood away from the heart toward capillaries to be distributed in the body cells |
| Veins | take deoxygenated blood from capillaries toward the hert to the lungs to get oxygen and carbon dioxide leaves. |
| Cohesion-tension hypothesis | Transpiration provides the pull for the ascent of water in plants. Cohesion/adhesion transmits this pull along the entire length of the xylem. |
| Translocation | movement of sugars inside the phloe that requries active transport (multidirectional) |
| Capillaries | Built for exchange, not transport. No smooth muscle, no elastin layers, no connective tissue layers, very tiny diameter. Thin walls -> short diffusion distance. Slow flow -> more time for diffusion. Huge surface area -> more space for exchange |
| Blood movement pattern | Arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins |
| Information processing pattern | sensory input -> integration -> motor output |
| Sensory input | The cone snail siphon senses the fish's presence through smell and other receptors |
| Integration | The information is collectively summed up to deliver a response |
| Motor output | Snail shoots send out harpoon-like tooth stabbing the prey (and swallowing it whole) |
| Afferent/Sensory neurons | receptors transmit information about external stimuli, such as light, movement, or internal conditions. Transmits information to CNS. Have a cell body in the spinal cord and sensory receptors (dendrites) recieve the signal like at the tips of your fingers |
| Interneurons | integration; connect neurons in the brain or simple ganglia. Have lots of dendrites and synaptic terminals because they are the call center directing the signals where they need to go. |
| Efferent/Motor neurons | transmit signals to muscle cells, causing them to contract. Can send the signal to other neurons or trigger glandular activity. Transmits information away from CNS. Usually lots of dendrites and long axons to few synaptic termials. |
| Central Nervous System (CNS) | Composed of the brain and spinal cord. Role: processing and integration (interneurons) |
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | Composed of cranial, spina, and peripheral nerves. Role: transmits information into and from the CNS (sensory and motor neurons) |
| Motor system | skeletal motor control - voluntary movement and reflexes |
| Automnic Nervous System | regulates internal body and controls involuntary and automatic behaviors, like breathing, heartbeat, the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric |
| Sympathetic nervous system | "fight or flight" - stimulates the body during stress responses (adrenaline). Increased heart rate, digestion slow |
| Parasympathetic nervous system | "rest and digest" - relaxes after the stress has passed |
| Enteric | regulates digestive system, pancreas, and gallbladder |
| Neuron structure | Made up of dentrides, axons, and synapse |
| Dendrites | branched projections that recieve signals |
| Axons | Long extension that transmits signals; axon hillock is origin of electrical signal |
| Synapse | junction between sending and recieving cells; chemical signals. It is at the synapse where the electrical signal is converted to a chemical signal (primarily neurotransmitters) that diffuses across that space |
| Glial cells | Non-neural cells that nourish and support the health of neurons. Types: oligodendrocytes and schwann cells, microglia, ependymal cells, astrocytes |
| Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells | make up the myelin sheath |
| Microglia | scavengers, or the clean-up crew, which remove dead cells and harmful pathogens. |
| Ependymal cells | produce cerebrospinal fluid which cushions the brain and circulates nutrients |
| Astrocytes | the most common, have many functions, including maintain the chemical composition of. the fluid that surrounds neurons, replace neurons, provide nutrients to neurons, and form the blood-brain barrier which blocks toxins from entering the brain |
| Membrane potential of a resting neuron | -70 mV - maintained by the sodium potassium pump |
| Hyperpolarization | inside of cell becomes more negative. Votage gated K+ channels open, so positive ions goes outside the cell |
| Depolarization | inside of cell becomes more positive. Once one voltage Na+ gate opens, every adhacent gate opens (flood of positive inside) like a wake across the membrane. |
| Action potentials | made up of depolarization, hyperpolarization, and back to resting potential |
| Threshold | Once threshold is crossed (-55 mV) the action potential has a fixed height and time-course (magnitude independent of strength of stimulus) |
| Steps for action potential | Resting potential -> depolarization -> hyperpolarization - undershoot -> resting potential |
| Undershoot | Too much negative inside the cell |
| Resting potential | back to resting membrane potential due to active Na+/K+ pump |
| Refractory period | Na+ entry into the cell is blocked physically. A second signal cannot cause another action potential so close to the first one (typically <2msec). |
| Conduction speed of axons | Invertebrate axons are wide but not myelinated. Speed is dependent on axon size, increases with diameter of an axon. Vertebrate axons are narrow but mainly myelinated. Allows narrow diameters of axons with high speed of action potential |
| Salatory conduction | Instead of moving from channel to channel along the entire membrane, the impulse goes node to node all the way down the axon. Myelin sheath acts as insulation. Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels are concentrated at Nodes of Ranvier |
| Chemical synapses | rely on release of chemical neurotransmitters to transfer information to target cell. Most common, slower. Flexible and adaptive (important for memory and learning) |
| Electrical synapses | Allow electrical current to flow directly from one neuron to another - gap junctions. Ex: Heart muscles. Very fast, important for defensive reflexes. like an invertebrate escaping from a predator. |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 1 | Plasma membrane depolarizes the synaptic terminal |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 2 | Voltage-gated calcium channels open, Ca2+ floods into terminal |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 3 | Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters fuse with membrane |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 4 | Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft (gap) |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 5 | Neurotransmitters bind to receptors and drive a response |
| Chemical synaptic signaling step 6 | Neurotransmitters are either broken down or recycled by the presynaptic neuron to be used for future communication. |
| Five types of sensory receptors | Mechanoreceptors, electromagnetic receptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and chemoreceptors |
| Mechanoreceptors | sense physical deformation caused by mechanical energy. Hearing, balance, pressure, touch, stretch, motion, etc. Hair cells in the ear are an example of this |
| Elecromagnetic receptors | sense electromagnetic energy. Light, electricity, magnetism |
| Thermoreceptors | sense heat and cold |
| Pain receptors | sense extreme pressure/temperature, damaging chemicals |
| Chemoreceptors | sense solute concentration and specific molecules. Glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, amino acids, etc. |
| Cochlea | bony chamber that is involved with hearing |
| How we hear | Tympanic membrane (eardrum) vibrates -> three bones in middle ear transmit vibrations to cochlea -> creates pressure waves in the fluid inside the cochlea -> vestibular canal -> vibrations in the basilar membrane and bending of hair cells. |
| How hair cells in ear make us hear | As the hair cells bend, via ion channel changes - depolarization or hyperpolarization, it sends a signal to the auditory comples of temporal lobe of the brain. |
| Photoreceptors | sense light - contain light-absorbing pigment molecules |
| Single lens eyes | vertebrates use single-lens eyes |
| Pupil | light enters through the pupil |
| Iris | adjusts the amount of light that enters |
| Lens | can change shape to adjust focus |
| Retina | contains the neurons and photoreceptors. |
| Types of photoreceptors | Light strikes rods and cones cells on the back of the retina |
| Rods | sensitive to light, but not color; enable night vision |
| Cones | provide color vision |
| Relay bipolar cells and ganglion cells | transmit the signal to the optic nerve |
| Optic nerve | takes the message to the visual cortex of the brain |
| Types of cones | Red-sensing, green-sensing, and blue-sensing |
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